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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS* J 



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t$H-~- 4°P2"SwWo t 

A A 

{ UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. J 




Ideal Restoration of the Neanderthal Man. 



A MANUAL 



OF THE 



ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 



J. P. MACLEAN", A. B. 



* In order to know what Man is, we ought to know what Man has been." 

—Prop. Max Mullze. 



<%- 



\ 



r 






NEW YORK: 

PUBLISHED FOR THE AUTHOR 

1875. 



QNVS 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in ihe year 1875, by 

J. P. MACLEAN, 
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



PREFACE. 



Ix lecturing upon the Antiquity of Man I have found 
the minds of the people prepared to receive the evidences, 
and ready to believe the conclusions of the geologists. I 
have felt the need of a popular work to place in the hands of 
the public, that would be both instructive and welcome. 
The works of Lyell and Lubbock are too elaborate and too 
expensive to meet the popular need. My object has been to 
give an outline of the subject sufficient to afford a reasonable 
acquaintance with the facts connected with the new science, 
to such as desire the information but cannot pursue it 
further, and to serve as a manual for those who intend to 
become more proficient. 

As the Unity of Language and the Unity of the Eace are 
so closely connected with the subject, I have added the two 
chapters on these questions, hoping they will be acceptable 
to the reader. It was my intention to have written a more 
extended chapter on the relation of the Holy Scriptures to 
this subject, but was forced to condense, as I had clone in 
other chapters, in order not to transcend the proposed limits 
of the book. 

In the preparation of this work I have freely used Lyell's 
"Antiquity of Man" and '-'Principles of Geology," Lub- 



4 PREFACE. 

bock's " Pre-Historic Times/' Buchner's "Man in tlie Past, 
Present, and Future," Figuier's "Primitive Man," Wilson's 
"Pre-Historic Man/' Keller's "Lake-Dwellings," the works 
of Charles Darwin, Dana's " Manual of Geology," Huxley's 
" Man's Place in Nature," Prichard's "Natural History of 
Man," Pouchet's "Plurality of the Human Eace," and 
others, referred to in the margins. 

I am indebted to my friend, Mr. Frank Cashing, for the 
ideal restoration of the Neanderthal Man. The engraving 
was made especially for this work. By the kindness of 
A. S. Barnes & Co. I have been permitted to insert figures 
2, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, and 18, taken from Steele's Geology. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

INTKODUCTIOK. 

PAGE 

Interest in the subject— Influence of Lyell — Usher's Chronology 
— Aime Boue iirst to proclaim the high antiquity of man — Dr. 
Schmerling the founder — Boucher de Perthes the apostle — 
Classifications by Lubbock, Lartet,Renouvier, and Westropp — 
Plan of the work — No Universal Age of Stone, Bronze, or Iron 
— Epochs not sharply defined — Outlines of History — Supersti- 
tious Notions — Skull from Constatt — Stone hatchet from Lon- 
don — Cavern of Gailenreuth — Axes from Hoxne — Human jaw 
from Maestricht — Skeleton from Lahr — " Reliquiae Diluvianae" 
— Discoveries by Tournal and. Christol — Engis and Enghihoul 
Caverns — Schnierling's labors — Lyell's opinions — Arrow mark 
on skull of Cave-Bear — Boucher de Perthes and the Yalley of 
the Somme — Jaw of Moulin-Quignon — Kent's Hole — Fossil 
Man of Denise — Remains from the Manzanares — Cave of Aurig- 
nac — Lyell declares his belief — Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland 
Neanderthal Skull — Caverns near Torquay — Cave of Massat 
— Cave of Lourdes — Caverns of Ariege — Tertiary at St. Prest — 
Implements near Gosport — Bones from Colmar — Implements 
near Bournemouth — Trou de la Naulette — Bones near Savonia 
— Reindeer Station — Foreland Cliff — Fossil Man of Mentone — 
Other Discoveries near Mentone 11 

CHAPTER II. 

GLACIAL EPOCH. 
Starting point for the investigation — Advance of the ice — Fauna 
of Europe — Geological Period — Probable Date — Probable Du- 
ration—Evidences of the Existence of Man— Implements 



b CONTES 

TAGE 

from Hampsliire — Flint tools at Bournemouth — Oval flint from 
Foreland Cliff— Implements from the Valley of the Sorame 
— Jaw of Moulin-Quignon — Implements from the Seine — Axes 
near Madrid — Kent's Hole — Brixham Cave — Human jaw from 
Maestricht — Skeleton from Lahr — Cave of La Naulette — Im- 
plements from Hoxne— Bones from Colmar 2o 

CHAPTER III. 

GLACIAL — CONTINUED. 

Belgian Caverns — Caverns of Liege— Engis Skull — Remarks of 
Prof. Huxley — Views of Busk, Schmerling, Buchner, and Vogt 
— Neanderthal Skull — Prof. Huxley, Dr. Buchner, and Dr. 
Fuhlrott on Geological time of Neanderthal Skull — Opinions 
of Huxley, Buchner, SchaafTliausen, and Busk — Skull from the 
Loess of the Rhine, Constatt, Cochrane's Cave, Island of Moen, 
Muisk, and Plau — Borrely Skulls — Human skulls of Arno 44 

CHAPTER IV. 

PRE-GLACIAL EPOCHS. 

North America during the Tertiary — Europe — Climate — Fauna of 
Eocene — Of Miocene — Of Pliocene — Traces of Man — Opinions 
of Lyell, Lubbock, and A. R. Wallace — Man in the Pliocene — 
Hearth under Osars — Human bones from Savonia — Discoveries 
at St. Prest — Skull from Altaville — Prof. Denton's Statement — 
Man in the Miocene — Flints from Pontlevoy — Flint-flake from 
Aurillac — Marks on bones near Pouance — Implements from 
Colorado and Wyoming — Eocene — Glacial Periods during the 
Miocene 58 

CHAPTER V. 

CONDITION OF MAN IN TIIE EARLIEST TIMES. 

No knowledge of the first appearance of Man — Fauna of India 
during the Miocene — Intellect of Man — Contests with the 
Beasts — A weapon invented — Earliest type — Advancement 
slow — Climate changes — Sufferings of Man — Known by the 
Remains — Structure of the Neanderthal Man — Engis Man — 
Men both large and small — Animal structure of jaws from 
La Naulette and Moulin-Quignon 63 



COXTEXTS. 7 

CHAPTER VI. 

INTER-GLACIAL EPOCH. 

TAGE 

Condition of the earth — Numerous traces of Man — Cave of Aurig- 
nac — Conclusions of Lartet and Cartailhac — Caverns of Mac- 
cagnone — Wokey Hole — Fossil Man of Denise — Reindeer Sta- 
tion on the Schusse — Dr. Buchner's Conclusions 

CHAPTER VII. 

CONDITION OF MAX IN THE INTER- GLACIAL. 

Length of the Inter-Glacial — Man an improvable being — Imple- 
ments improved — Art of engraving begun — Religious nature — 
Denton's description of primeval man — Language improved. . 76 

CHAPTER VIII. 

REINDEER EPOCH. 

Advance of the Glaciers — Fauna — Reindeer epoch a distinct one — 
Evidences of the existence of Man — Caves of Central and 
Southern France — Implements from Les Eyzies — Relics from 
La Madeleine — Workshops of Laugerie-Haute and Laugerie- 
Basse — Cave and rock shelters of Bruniquel — Cave of Gour- 
dan — Fossil Man of Mentone — Other remains near Mentone — 
Other bone caves of France — Belgian Caverns — Trou de Frontal 
— Trou Rosette — Trou des Nutons — Cave of Chaleux — Cave at 
Furfooz — Cave of Thayngen — Cave near Cracow 79 

CHAPTER IX. 

MAN OF THE REINDEER EPOCH. 

Man under a more favorable aspect — Type of Dwellings — Clothing 
— Food— Cannibalism — The Arts — Traffic — Burial — Dupont's 
Report 89 

CHAPTER X. 

NEOLITHIC EPOCH. 

How characterized — Caves of this period — Contents of — Cave of 
Saint Jean d'Alcas — Danish Shell-Mounds — Danish Peat Bogs 
— Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland — Enumeration of — Roben- 
hausen — Fauna and Flora of — Troyon and Keller on — Other 
Lake-Dwellings — Chronology 94 



8 CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XT. 

MAN OF THE NEOLITHIC. 

PAGB 

Type of — Advancement — Habitations— Clothing— Food— Arts and 
Manufactures— Vast number of implements discovered — War 
— Agriculture — Burial — Dolmens, Tumuli, Cromlechs, and 
Menhirs — Victims, or Cannibalism 103 

CHAPTER XII. 

BRONZE EPOCH. 

No direct relation to Antiquity of Man — How characterized — Type 
— Habitation and Food — Clothing — Implements — Arts — Agri- 
culture — Fishing and Navigation — Burial — Religious Belief — 
Stone crescents 108 

CHAPTER XIII. 

IRON EPOCH. 

Civilization established — Swiss Lake-Dwellings — Dr. Keller's Ob- 
servations » 112 

CHAPTER XIV. 

TRACES OF MAN IN AMERICA. 

Great opportunities for the Archaeologist — Aim of the chapter — 
Skull from Osage Mission — Comstock lode — Charcoal at To- 
ronto — Knife from Kansas — Pelvic bone from Natchez — Skele- 
ton from New Orleans — Remains from the reefs of Florida — 
Caverns of Brazil — Shell Heaps — Mound-Builders — Extent of 
Mounds — Implements of — Sacrificial— Sephulchral — Temple — 
Symbolical — Antiquity of — Fort Shelby — How long the Mound- 
Builders remained 114 

CHAPTER XV. 

WRITTEN niSTORY. 

Mystery of Ancient Empires — Rollin's difficulties — Egypt — Mane- 
tho's list — Statement of Herodotus — Mariette's explorations — 
Borings in the mud deposits of the Nile — Dr. Schliemann's dis- 
coveries at Troy — History of Chaldea by Berosus — Astronomi- 
cal calculations — Chinese history — Mexican Ilistorv 123 



CONTENTS. V 

CHAPTER XVI. 

LANGUAGE. 

TAGE 

A field for study — Three divisions of language — Rhernatic period 
— Origin of — Various theories — Change of — Views of Ancients 
— Number of — Comparative permancy of written language. . . 132 

CHAPTER XVIL 

UNITY OF THE HUMAN RACE. 

Objections to the Unity of the Race — Anatomical — Geographical 
— Disparity of — Non-existence of medium types — Phenomena 
caused by two united types — Objections answered — Both man 
and animals affected by climate, food, and condition — Examples 
— Argument from language — Ocean navigated by frail crafts 
— Examples — Captain Tyson and party — The two extremes 
exist in all nations, and even in families — People who have 
retrograded — Races will amalgamate and perpetuate their 
kind — Griquas — Papuas — Pitcairn Islanders — Law of hybridity 
— Close affinity of the races — Slow change of 136 

CHAPTER XVIIT. 

THE BIBLE. 

Ccntroversy— Perversion of meaning — Men of science branded- 
Design of the chapter — Creation — " Bara " — Day — Man's ap- 
pearance — Two accounts — Case of Cain — Sons of God — Re- 
marks of Dr. Livingstone — Doctrine of unity of the race — 
Chronology — The Deluge— Septuagint — Monarchies — The Dis- 
persion — Opinion of Dr. Hedge — No supernatural aid in the 
formation of Language — What God may do does not imply 
what he has done — Dean Stanley on the Biblical account of 

Creation 143 

1* 



A MANUAL 



OF THE 



ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 



CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTION. 



No subject, of late years, has so much engrossed the atten- 
tion of geologists as the antiquity of the human race. The 
interest was greatly increased by the publication of Sir Charles 
LyelPs " Antiquity of Man." This work called the attention 
of the public to the subject, and so great became the interest 
that many volumes and memoirs have been added to the list, 
discussing the question in various ways, and, for the most 
part, in such a manner as to add fresh interest and throw 
more light on the subject. The scientific men were slow to 
take advantage of the discoveries continually being made of 
the bones and works of man found in caves and associated 
with the remains of extinct animals. It is probable, even at 
this late day, there would not have been so much discussion 
of this subject had not Sir Charles Lyell lent the weight of 
his great name to it. Educated men, everywhere, began to 
doubt the correctness of Archbishop Usher's chronology, and 
so complete has been the revolution of opinion that it is 
almost impossible to find an intelligent man who would limit 
the period of man's existence to 6,000 years. 

To Aime Boue, a French geologist, must be attributed the 
honor of having been the first to proclaim the high antiquity 
of the human race : to Pr. Schmerling, the learned Belgian 



12 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

osteologist, on account of his laborious investigations, untir- 
ing zeal, -and great work on the subject, the merited title 
of being the founder of the new science ; to M. Boucher de 
Perthes, ite great apostle ; while to Sir Charles Lyell and Sir 
John Lubbock must be ascribed the honor of having made 
the new theory popular. 

The new science soon became permanently established, 
and the geologists at once set about classifying the facts be- 
fore them, in order to a^ign to them their respective places 
in the geological epochs. All are agreed in respect to the 
chronological orders, but all have not used the same nomen- 
clature, in consequence of which more or less confusion has 
been the result. Sir J. Lubbock has divided pre-historic 
archaeology into four great epochs, as follows : 

"I. That of the Drift; when man shared the possession 
of Europe with the mammoth, the cave-bear, the woolly- 
haired rhinoceros, and other extinct animals. This we may 
call the ' Palaeolithic ' period. 

"II. The later or polished Stone Age; a period charac- 
terized by beautiful stone weapons and instruments made of 
flint and other kinds of stone ; in which, however, Ave find no 
trace of the knowledge of any metal, excepting gold, which 
seems to have been sometimes used for ornaments. This we 
may call the ' Neolithic ' period. 

" III. The Bronze Age, in wdiich bronze was used for 
arms and cutting instruments of all kinds. 

" IV. The Iron Age, in which that metal had superseded 
bronze for arms, axes, knives, etc." * 

These divisions are recognized by Lyell and Tylor. 

Edward Lartet has proposed the following classification : 

I. THE STONE AGE. 

1st. Epoch of extinct animals (or of the great bear and 
mammoth). 

2d. Epoch of migrated existing animals (or the reindeer 
epoch). 

* " Pre-Historic Times," p. 2. 



INTRODUCTION. 13 

3d. Epoch of domesticated existing animals (or the pol- 
ished stone epoch). 

II. THE METAL AGE. 

1st. The Bronze Epoch. 
2d. The Iron Epoch. 

This mode of division is adopted by M. Figuier, in his 
"Primitive Man/' by the Museum o^ Saint-Germain in that 
portion devoted to pre-historic antiquities, and adhered to in 
essential points by Troyon and d'Archiac. 

Professor Kenevier, of Lausanne, has proposed a some- 
what different scheme, founded upon the epochs of Swiss 
glaciation. It is as follows : 

"I. Pre-glacial Epoch, in which man lived cotempo- 
raneously with the elephant [Elephas antiquus), rhinoceros 
(R. hemitcechus), and the cave-bear (Ursus spelceus). 

" II. Glacial Epoch, in which man lived cotemporaneously 
with the mammoth (Elephas primigenius), rhinoceros (R. 
tichorrhinus), cave-bear, etc. 

"III. Post-glacial Epoch, in which man lived cotempo- 
raneously with the mammoth and reindeer (Cervus tarandus). 

" IV. Last Epoch, or epoch of the Pile-iuildings, in 
which man lived cotemporaneously with the Irish elk (Mega- 
ceros hibernicus), aurochs (Bison Eur opceus)," etc.* 

Westropp divides the periods of man, in respect to his 
stages of civilization, as follows : Savagery, hunters, herds- 
men, and agriculturists. 

In the following pages a somewhat different classification 
has been adopted, and may be thus explained : 

I. Pre-glacial Epoch ; that period antedating the glaciers 
of the post-tertiary, in which man lived cotemporaneously 
Avith the animals of the tertiary, southern elephant (E. 
meridionalis), etc. 

II. Glacial Epoch ; that period of the post-tertiary when 

* Buchner, p. 260. 



14 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

man was forced to contend with the great ice-fields and the 
floods immediately succeeding them, when the mammoth 
{E.primig cuius), rhinoceros (R. t ichor rhinus), cave-bear, etc., 
began to flourish. 

III. Interglacial Epoch ; that period between the glacial 
and the second advance of the ice, in which man lived co- 
temporaneously with the animals of the preceding epoch, 
and the cave bear became extinct. 

IV. Reindeer Epoclu; that period when the glaciers again 
advanced ; in which man's chief food consisted of the flesh of 
the reindeer (C. tarandits), that animal having made its way 
in numerous herds as far south as the Pyrenees. 

V. Neolithic Epoch ; that period in which man polished 
his weapons of stone, and sought to domesticate certain ani- 
mals, the dog, etc. 

VI. Bronze Epoch ; that period characterized by weapons 
and implements being made chiefly of bronze. 

VII. Iron Epoch ; that period in which bronze was gen- 
erally superseded by iron. 

This classification, on the whole, seems to be the best that 
could be devised, for the reason it attempts to place the evi- 
dences of the existence of man in their relative geological 
positions. 

Other methods have misled the student. There was no 
universal Stone, Bronze, or Iron Age. The classification 
given by Lubbock applies to Europe, but is too general. I 
have adopted the word "Neolithic" for want of a better 
term, although the signification of the word is appropriate to 
the period it is intended to represent. 

These various epochs are not sharply defined, the one 
from the other ; but one merges into the other by gradual pro- 
gression covering a period of thousands of years. The growth 
of the various plants and animals, and their retreat or final 
extinction, have also been very slow. 

An outline of the history of the discoveries which led to a 
careful investigation of the question, and which resolved the 



INTRODUCTION. 15 

question into a science, is not only one of interest but also of 
importance to the careful thinker seeking information on 
the subject. 

Prior to the study of the ancient implements the "people 
had so little notion of the nature and signification of the 
stone axes and weapons of earlier and later times that they 
were regarded with superstitious fear and hope, and as produc- 
tions of lightning and thunder. Hence for a long time they 
were called thunderbolts even by the learned. . . As 
late as the year 1734 when Mahndel explained in the Academy 
of Paris that these stones were human implements, he was 
laughed at, because he had not proved that they could not 
have been formed in the clouds." * 

As early as the year 1700, a human skull was dug out of 
the calcareous tuff of Cimstatt, in company with the bones 
of the mammoth. It is preserved in the Natural History 'M^, 
Museum at Stuttgart. ' j 

In the year 1715, an Englishman named Kemp found in 
London, by the side of elephant's teeth, a stone hatchet, sim- 
ilar to those which have been subsequently found in great 
numbers in different parts of the world. This hatchet is still 
preserved in the British Museum. 

In 1774, in the cavern of Gailenreuth, Bavaria, J. E. Es- 
per discovered some human bones mingled with the remains 
of extinct animals. 

In 1797, unpolished flint axes were dug out in great num- 
bers from a brick-field near Hoxne, county of Suffolk, where 
they occurred at a depth of twelve feet, mingled with the 
bones of extinct species of animals. They were gathered up 
and thrown by basketsful upon the neighboring road. In 
the year 1801, before t':e Society of Antiquaries, John Erere 
read a paper upon them, in which he stated that they 
pointed to a very remote period. This communication, short 
as it was, contained the essence of all subsequent discoveries 

* " Man in the Past, Present, and Future," p, 288. 



16 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

and speculations as to tlie antiquity of man. But the society 
regarded the subject as of no importance. 

During the construction of a canal (1815-1823) in Hol- 
lerci, there was found, near Maestricht, in the loess, a human 
jaw in company witli the bones of extinct animals. This 
bone is preserved in the museum at Leyden. 

In 1823, Aime Boue disinterred portions of a human skel- 
eton from ancient undisturbed loess near Lahr, a small vil- 
lage nearly opposite Strasbourg. These bones were placed in 
the care of Cuvier, but, having been neglected, are iioav lost. 

In the same year, Dr. Buckland, an English geologist, pub- 
lished his " Reliquiae Diluvianse," a work principally devoted 
to a description of the Kirkdale Cave. The author com- 
bined all the known facts which favored the coexistence of 
man, with the extinct animals. 

In 1828, M. Tournal and M. Christol explored numerous 
caverns in the south of France. In the cavern of Bize, 
Tournal found human bones and teeth, and fragments of rude 
pottery, together with the bones of both living and extinct 
species of animals, imbedded in the same mud and breccia, 
cemented by stalagmite. The human bones were in the same 
chemical condition as those of the extinct species. 

M. Christol found in the cavern of Pondres, near Nimes, 
some human bones in the same mud with the bones of an 
extinct hyena and rhinoceros. 

In 1833, Dr. Schmerling explored the two bone-caverns 
of Engis and Enghihoul (Belgium). In the former he found 
the Engis skull (now in the museum of the University of 
Liege), at a depth of nearly five feet, under an osseous breccia. 
The earth also contained the teeth of rhinoceros, horse, hyena, 
and bear, and exhibited no marks of disturbance. He also 
found the skull of a young person imbedded by the side of a 
mammoth's tooth. It was entire, but so fragile, that it fell 
to pieces before it was extracted. In the cave of Enghihoul 
he found numerous bones belonging to three human individ- 
uals, mingled with the bones of extinct animals. In these 



INTRODUCTION. 17 

caves lie noted rude flint instruments, but did not collect 
many of them. In the cave of Chokier, he discovered a pol- 
ished and jointed needle-shaped bone, with a hole pierced 
through it, at its base. The caves of Engis and Chokier have 
been annihilated, while only a part of Enghihoul remains. 

Soon after these discoveries Dr. Schmerling published a 
work which described and represented a vast quantity of 
objects which had been discovered in the Belgian caverns. 
The scientific men were not yet prepared to receive the new 
discoveries, and it attracted but little attention at that time. 

Too much praise cannot be bestowed upon Dr. Schmerling 
for his unremitting labors. Of these labors Sir Charles Lyell 
has said : " To have undertaken, in 1832, with a view of 
testing its truth (antiquity of fossil human bones) to follow 
the Belgian philosopher through every stage of his observations 
and proofs, would have been no easy task even for one well- 
skilled in geology and osteology. To be let down, as Schmer- 
ling was, day after day, by a rope tied to a tree, so as to slide to 
the foot of the first opening of the Engis cave, where the best- 
preserved human skulls were found ; and, after thus gaining 
access to the first subterranean gallery, to creep on all fours 
through a contracted passage leading to larger chambers, there 
to superintend by torchlight, week after week and year after 
year, the workmen who were breaking through the stalag- 
mitic crust as hard as marble, in order to remove piece by 
piece the underlying bone-breccia nearly as hard ; to stand 
for hours with one's feet in the mud, and with water dripping 
from the roof on one's head, in order to mark the position 
and guard against the loss of each single bone of a skeleton ; 
and at length, after finding leisure, strength, and courage for 
all these operations, to look forward, as the fruits of one's 
labor, to the publication of unwelcome intelligence, opposed 
to the prepossessions of the scientific as well as the unscientific 
public ; — when these circumstances are taken into account, 

we need scarcely wonder that a quarter of a 

century should have elapsed before even the neighboring pro- 



18 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

fessors of the University of Liege came forth to vindicate 
the truthfulness of their indefatigable and clear-sighted coun- 
tryman." * 

In 1835, M. Joly, then professor at the Lyceum of Mont- 
pellier, found in the cave of Nabrigas (Lozere) the skull of 
a cave-bear, on which an arrow had left its mark. Close 
by, was a fragment of pottery marked by the finger of the 
moulder. 

It was in the valley of the Somme (a river in the north of 
France) that M. Boucher de Perthes found those famous flint- 
axes of the rudest form. His explorations had been going 
on for a long time. He did all he could to bring these dis- 
coveries before the public. In the year 1836 he began to pro- 
claim the high antiquity of man, in a series of communica- 
tions addressed to the Societe d'Emulation of Abbeville. To 
the same society, in the year 1838, he exhibited the flint-axes 
he had found, but without result. In 1839, he took these 
hatchets to Paris, and showed them to some of the members 
of the Institute. At first they gave some encouragement 
toward these researches ; but this favorable feeling did not 
last long. In 1841 he began to form his collection, which 
has since become so justly celebrated. He engaged trained 
workmen to dig in the diluvial beds, and in a short time he 
had collected twenty specimens of flint wrought by the hand 
of man, though in a very rude state. In 18-16, he published 
his first work on the subject, entitled " De l'lndustrie Primi- 
tive, ou les Arts et leur Origine." In the following year he 
published his " Antiquites Celtiques et Antediluviennes," in 
which he gave illustrations of these stone implements. This 
work attracted no attention until the year 1854, when a 
French savant, named Eigollot, made a personal examination 
and was successful in his search for these relicts in the neigh- 
borhood of Amiens. He was soon followed by Sir C. Lyell, 
Sir John Lubbock, Dr. Falconer, Sir Roderick I. Murchison, 
and other eminent scientists. 

* " Antiquity of Man," p. 68. 



INTRODUCTION. 19 

Boucher de Perthes, continuing his researches, was re- 
warded, in the year 1863, by finding the lower half of a 
human jaw bone, covered with an earthy crust, which he 
extracted with his own hands from a gravel-pit at Abbeville. 
A few inches from it a flint hatchet was discovered. They 
were at a depth of fifteen feet below the surface. This bone 
has been called the jaw of Moulin-Quignon, and is preserved 
in the Museum of Natural History at Paris. 

The discovery of this bone produced a great sensation 
among English geologists. Christy, Falconer, Carpenter, 
and Busk went to France and examined the locality where 
the bone was found. They went away satisfied with both 
its authenticity and antiquity. Some geologists, however, 
doubted its authenticity ; but at the present time all, or 
nearly all, recognize the truth of the conclusions of Boucher 
de Perthes. 

Not far from the same locality, he was again successful, in 
1869, in finding a number of human bones presenting the 
same character as the jaw of Moulin-Quignon. 

In 1840, Kev. J. MacEnery, of Devonshire, England, found 
in a cave, called Kent's Hole, human bones and flint knives 
among the remains of the mammoth, cave-bear, hyena, 
and two-horned rhinoceros, all from under a crust of stalag- 
mite. Mr. MacEnery began the explorations of this cave as 
early as 1825. He did not publish, his notes on his discover- 
ies but they remained in manuscript until 1859, when they 
were obtained by Mr. Vivian. 

Mr. Godwin-Austen, in his communication to the Geologi- 
cal Society in the year 1840, states, in his description of 
Kent's Hole, he found works of art in all parts of the cave. 

The fossil Man of Denise was discovered by a peasant, in 
an old volcanic tuff, near the town of Le Puy-en-Velay, 
Central France, an account of which was first published by 
Dr. Aymard, in 1844. Able naturalists, who have examined 
these bones, especially those familiar with the volcanic regions 
of Central France, declared that they believed them to have 



20 



ANTIQUITY 01- MAX. 



been enveloped by natural causes in the tufaceous matrix in 
which they are now seen. 

In the years 1845-1850, Casiano do Prado made discov- 
eries on the banks of the Manzanares, near Madrid. They 
consisted of portions of the skeletons of the rhinoceros, and a 
nearly perfect skeleton of an elephant in the diluvial sand. 

Fig. 1. 



>-V.' ^M- 




Sm Chakles Lyell. 

Lying beneath this ossiferous sand, were several flint axes of 
human workmanship. 

Near the town of Aurignac, France, a workman named 
Bonnemaison, in the year 1852, accidently discovered a cave 
containing the remains of seventeen human skeletons. These 
bones were taken by Dr. Amiel, the mayor of Aurignac, who 
was ignorant of their value, and consigned to the parish ceme- 
tery. The spot of their re-inhumation has been forgotten, 
and this treasure is now lost to science. In 18G0, the cave 



INTRODUCTION. 21 

was explored by Edward Lartet. After a long and patient 
examination, he came to the conclusion that the caye was a 
human burial place, cotemporary with the mammoth and other 
great animals of the quaternary epoch. 

It was at the meeting of the British Association, in 1855, 
that Sir Charles Lyell declared his belief in the great antiq- 
uity of the human race. He had before opposed the idea, 
but was convinced of the truth by personal examination of 
human bones and flint hatchets, from the quarries of St. 
Acheul. He became enthusiastic in his investigations, and, 
in order to present the discussion clearly to the scientific pub- 
lic, he published his " Geological Evidences of the Antiquity 
of Man," in 1863. In the last edition of his " Principles of 
Geology," he bestows considerable space to the discussion of 
the subject. He was closely followed, in the same view, by 
other eminent geologists. 

The remains of the ancient Lake Dwellings of Switzerland 
were discovered in the winter of 1853-1854. That winter 
was so dry and cold that the water of the lakes fell far below, 
its ordinary level. On account of this, a large tract of 
ground of Lake Zurich was gained by the people throwing 
up embankments. In the process of the work, the piles on 
which stood the dwellings, fragments of pottery, bone and 
stone implements, and various other relics, were discovered.* 
Dr. Keller, of Zurich, examined the objects, and at once 
came to a right understanding as to their signification. He 
carefully examined the remains, and described these lake 
habitations in six memoirs presented to the Antiquarian 
Society of Zurich, in 1854, 1858, 1860, 1863, and 1866. In 
1866 these memoirs were translated into English by J. E. 
Lee, together with articles from other antiquaries, under the 
title of "The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland, and other parts 
of Europe." This work contains ninety-seven plates, besides 
many wood-cuts. 

* Discoveries of this kind were made in 1829. — Keller's "Lake- 
Dwellings," p. 11. 



22 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

Memoirs of the Dwellers of different lakes have, from time 
to time, been published, but they are included in the trans- 
lated work of Dr. Keller. 

The far-famed Neanderthal skull was discovered by Dr. 
Fuhlrott, in the year 1857, in a limestone cavern, near Dus- 
seldorf, in a deep ravine known by the name of Neanderthal. 
This skull, with parts of the skeleton to which it belonged, 
w T as found under a layer of mud, about five feet in thickness. 
It is now in the cabinet of Dr. Fuhlrott, Elberfield, Ehenisli 
Prussia. 

In 1858, a bone-cavern was found near Torquay, not far 
from Kent's Hole. This cave was examined by a scientific 
commission. At first it w r as undertaken by the Koyal Society, 
but when its grants had failed, Miss Burdett-Ooutts paid 
the expenses of completing the work. In this cave, under a 
layer of stalagmite. w r ere found many flint knives, associated 
with the bones of extinct mammals. 

M. A. Fontan found in the cave of Massat (Department 
of Ariege), in 1859, human teeth and utensils associated with 
the remains of the cave-bear, the fossil hyena, and the cave- 
lion {Fells spelcBa). 

In 1861, M. A. Milne Edwards found certain relics of 
human industry mingled with, the fossil bones of animals, in 
the cave of Lourdes, France. 

In 1862, Dr. Garrigou published the result of the re- 
searches which he, in con junction with Rames and Filhol, had 
made in the caverns of Ariege. These explorers found the 
jaw-bones of the cave-bear and cave-lion, which had been 
wrought by the hands of man. 

In the upper strata of the tertiary beds (pliocene) at St. 
Prest (Department of Eure), in the year 1863, M. Desmoyers 
found the bones of extinct animals which were cut or notched 
by flint instruments. In the same strata Abbe Bourgeois dis- 
covered implements of stone. He communicated his discov- 
eries to the International Congress held at Paris in 1867. 

In 1864, James Brown found flint implements midw T ay 



INTRODUCTION. 23 

between Gosport and Southampton, included in gravel from 
eight to twelve feet thick, capping a cliff which at its 
greatest height is thirty-five feet above high-water mark. 
These flint tools exactly resemble those found at Abbeville 
and Amiens. Some of them are preserved in the Blackmore 
Museum at Salisbury. 

In 1865, there was found in the loess of the Rhine, near 
Colmar, Alsace, human bones in the same bed with bones of 
the mammoth, horse, stag, auroch, and other animals. 

In 1866, Alfred Stevens first dug out a hatchet from the 
gravel at the top of the sea-cliff east of the Bournemouth 
opening, Southampton river. Soon after, Dr. Blackmore, to 
the west of the valley, obtained two other flint implements. 
The spot was examined by Lyell in 1867. 

Dr. Edward Dupont, an eminent Belgian cave explorer, 
in the year 1866, found a fragment of a human jaw in the 
Trou de la Naulette, a bone cave situated on the bank of the 
river Lesse not far from Chaleux. 

At the International Congress of 1867, M. A. Issel reported 
he had found several human bones in beds of Pliocene age, 
near Savonia, in Liguria. 

The Eeindeer Station on the Schusse, in Swabia, was dis- 
covered in 1867, during the operations undertaken for the 
improvement of a mill-pond. The Schusse is a little river 
which flows into the lake of Constance, and its source is upon 
the high plateau of Upper Swabia between the lake of Con- 
stance and the upper course of the Danube. 

In 1868, Thomas Codrington discovered an oval flint im- 
plement in gravel at the top of the Foreland Cliff, Isle of 
Wight, five miles southeast of Ryde. 

The fossil Man of Mentone was discovered, in 1872, by M. 
Riviere, in a cave near Nice, France. The skeleton was 
almost entire, and imbedded twenty feet below the surface of 
the deposit. 

In 1873, M. Riviere discovered another human skeleton, 



24 ANTIQUITY OK MAX. 

by the side of which lay a few unpolished stone implements, 
in one of the caves in the same neighborhood. 

In 1873 and 1874, M. Kiviere was again so fortunate as to 
discover, in neighboring caves, the remains of three persons, 
two of them those of children. The skeletons were in the 
same condition, and decked with similar ornaments, as those 
he had previously discovered. 



CHAPTER II. 



GLACIAL EPOCH. 



Happily for the Archaeo-geologist, there is given him a 
point from which to start in his researches into the antiquity 
of his race. Without it his calculations would be very indefi- 
nite and his efforts would be shorn of much of their interest. 
The Glacial Epoch, that has puzzled the mind of both the 
geologist and the astronomer, is a guide-post where he may 
not only look both ways, but also estimate the length of ages 
and number the years of man. Nothing, then, is of more 
importance, in this investigation, than an understanding of 
the condition of the earth prior to the glacial, and the knowl- 
edge of the date and length of this epoch. 

For untold ages the earth, to all appearance, had been 
preparing itself for the reception of man. There was an 
abundance of game, the forests were beautiful, the domestic 
animals had made their appearance, the climate was warm, 
the soil rich, and the coal had been formed. Everything 
seemed to point to a bright and glorious future for man, who 
had already entered upon the scene. It is true there were 
fierce and savage beasts to contend with. These seemed but 
a motive power to stir man to action and develop the resources 
of his mind. Should he fail for a time to overcome the wild 
beasts a retreat was provided in the hollow recesses of the 
earth. But nature felt her work was still unfinished. The 
earth had passed through the ordeal of fire, and withstood the 
devastations of water, and now her long summer must come 
to an end. The arctic regions had been growing colder and 
colder, and the change was felt in the countries to the south. 
2 



2G ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

The northern animals were being clothed with a hairy or 
woolly garment for their protection. The aspect began to be 
forbidding. The future prospect of man was not only gloomy, 
but foreboded he should perish along with the many species 
of animals that were gradually succumbing to the cold. 
Great fields of ice were slowly accumulating at both the poles, 
and at last, by the power of their great weight, assisted by 
some geographical changes, began- to move toward the equa- 
tor, crushing and grinding the great rocks, and either driving 
before them, or else destroying, every living thing in their 
relentless march. Slowly but surely they moved on. The 
mountains groaned under the enormous weight of ice. Their 
heads w^ere scarred, their sides bruised, torn and cut. The 
icy monsters listened not to the pleadings of earth, the lowing 
of cattle, or the cries of man. Centuries elapsed before the 
sun re-asserted his power. The rays of the sun, the internal 
heat of the earth, and other causes, produced a change. The 
northern ice was broken up by the time it reached latitude 
39° North America, leaving its indelible traces in the bowl- 
ders, gravel, beds of sand and clay which mark its course. 
In Europe this sheet of ice extended as far south as Spain 
and Corsica. The glaciers of the Antarctic regions ex- 
tended as far as latitude 41° south. 

Fauna of Europe, — Among the Fauna may be mentioned 
the gigantic elephants, of nearly twice the bulk of the largest 
individuals that now exist, which roamed in herds over 
England, and extended across the Siberian plains and from 
Behring Strait to South Carolina. Two-horned rhinoceroses 
wallowed in the swamps of the ancient forests. Hippopota- 
muses inhabited the lakes and rivers. The great cave-bear, 
which sometimes attained the size of a horse, and the cave- 
tiger, twice as large as the living tiger, preyed upon the ani- 
mals of less strength than themselves. Troops of hyenas, 
larger than those of South America, disputed with other beasts 
of prey. A species of wild-cat, lynx, and leopard found 



GLACIAL EPOCH. 27 

retreats in the same forests. Then there was a remarkable 
carnivorous animal called Macliairodus, about the size of a 
tiger, and from the shape and size of the sword-like teeth, 
must have been a very destructive creature. The lemming 
and the musk ox found a home, and the wild horse pranced 
about unrestrained by the hand of man. The great Irish elks 
swiftly moved over the ground, and must have been yery 
numerous, as their remains occur in abundance in peat-bogs 
and marl-pits. Nor should it be unmentioned that there 
was also a species of gigantic ox nearly as large as an elephant, 
that subsisted on the plains. All these animals followed the 
retreat of the glaciers and some of them were in close prox- 
imity to the ice. 

Geological Period. — The glacial epoch occurred during 
the geological period known as the post-tertiary. The tertiary 
had gradually passed away and its time had been recorded on 
the pages of geological history. A new epoch began to dawn. 
This was the epoch of ice, the birth and almost the childhood 
of the post-tertiary. 

Probable Date. — In discussing the probable date of the 
glacial epoch, Sir Charles Lyell says, " The attempt to assign 
a chronological value to any of our geological periods except 
the latest, must, in the present state of science, be hopeless. 
Nevertheless, independently of all astronomical considera- 
tions, it must, I think, be conceded that the period required 
for the coming on of the greatest cold, and for its duration 
when most intense, and the oscillations to which it was sub- 
ject, as well as the retreat of the glaciers and the ' great thaw ' 
or disappearance of snow from many mountain-chains where 
the snow was once perpetual, required not tens but hundreds 
of thousands of years. Less time would not suffice for the 
changes in physical geography and organic life of which we 
have evidence. To a geologist, therefore, it would not appear 
startling that the greatest cold should be supposed to have 
been two hundred thousand years ago, although this date 



28 ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 

must be considered as very conjectural, and one which may 
be as likely to err in deficiency of time as in excess." * 

Sir John Lubbock, in his dissent from some calculations 
made by Mr. Geikie on the general effect produced by rivers 
in excavating valleys and lowering the general level of the 
country, says, " As regards the higher districts, however, his 
data are perhaps not far wrong, and if we apply them to the 
valley of the Somme, where the excavation is about two hun- 
dred feet in depth, they would indicate an antiquity for the 
palaeolithic epoch of from one hundred thousand to two hun- 
dred and forty thousand years." f 

Dana, in his chapter on the length of geological time, says, 
in speaking of the time required to excavate the gorge of 
Niagara Eiver, that "on both sides of the gorge near the 
whirlpool, and also at Goat Island, there are beds of recent 
lake shells .... the same kinds that live in still 
water near the entrance to the lake, and which are not found 
in the rapids. The lake, therefore, spread its still waters, 
when these beds were formed, over the gorge above the whirl- 
pool. A tooth of a mastodon (M. giganteus) has been found 
in the same beds. This locates the time in the Champlain 
epoch Six miles of the gorge have been exca- 
vated since that mastodon was alive. . ... 

" There is a lateral valley leading from the whirlpool 
through the Queenstown precipice at a point a few miles west of 
Lewiston. This valley is filled with drift of the glacial epoch, 
and this blocking up of the channel may have compelled it to 
open a new passage. 

" If, then, the falls have been receding six miles, and we 
can ascertain the probable rate of progress, we may approxi- 
mate to the length of time it required. Hall and Lyell esti- 
mated the average rate at one foot a year, — which is certainly 
large. Mr. Desor concluded, after his study of the falls, that 
it was ' more nearly three feet a century than three feet a 

* " Principles of Geology," vol. \, p. 286. 
f " Pre-Historic Times," p. 41-3. 



GLACIAt, EPOCH. 29 

year.' Taking the rate at one foot a year, the six miles will 
have required over thirty-one thousand years ; if at one inch 
a year — which is eight and one third feet a century — three 
hundred and eighty thousand years." * 

The calculation made by Dana is for the Champlain epoch. 
As this epoch was subsequent to the glacial, the time must be 
either thrown still farther back, or else allow the calculations 
t o begin with the end of the glacial. 

Probable Duration, — Lyell has attempted to form an 
estimate of the duration of the glacial epoch by considering 
"the most simple series of changes in physical geography 
which can possibly account for the phenomena of the glacial 
period," and enumerates as follows : 

" First, a continental period, toward the close of which 
the forest of Cromer flourished ; when the land was at least 
five hundred feet above its present level, perhaps much higher, 
and its extent probably greater than that given in the map, 
Fig. 41." (In this map the whole of the British Isles are con- 
nected with one another, and with the continent — the Ger- 
man Ocean and the English Channel constituting dry land). 

" Secondly, a period of submergence, by which the land 
north of the Thames and Bristol Channel, and that of Ire- 
land, was gradually reduced to an archipelago ; and finally to 
such a general prevalence of sea as is seen in map, Fig. 39." 
(This map is intended to represent the British Isles as 
they appeared above water when Scotland was submerged 
to two thousand feet and other parts of the isles to one 
thousand three hundred feet.) "This was the period of 
submergence and of floating ice, when the Scandinavian flora, 
which occupied the lower grounds during the first continental 
period, may have obtained exclusive possession of the only 
lands not covered with perpetual snow. 

" Thirdly, a second continental period, when the bed of the 
glacial sea, with its marine shells and erratic blocks, was laid 
dry, and when the quantity of land equalled that of the first 

* " Manual of Geology," p. 590. 



30 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

period.' .... During this period there were glaciers 
in the higher mountains of Scotland and Wales. . . . 

" The submergence of Wales to the extent of one thousand 
four hundred feet, as proved by glacial shells, would require 
fifty-six thousand years, at the rate of two and a half feet per 
century ; but taking Professor Kamsay's estimate of eight 
hundred feet more, that depression being required for the 
deposition of some of the stratified drift, we must demand 
an editional period of thirty-two thousand years, amount- 
ing in all to eighty-eight thousand ; and the same time 
would be required for the reelevation of the tract to its 
present height. But if the land rose in the second continental 
period no more than six hundred above the present level . . 
this . . . would have taken another twenty-six thousand 
years ; the whole of the grand oscillation, comprising the 
submergence and reemergence, having taken, in round num- 
bers, two hundred and twenty-four thousand years for its 
completion ; and this, even if there were no pause or station- 
ary period, when the downward movement ceased, and before 
it was converted into an upward one." * 

Lyell admits that the average rate of two and a half feet 
per century is a purely arbitrary and conjectural one, and 
there are cases where the change is even six feet a century, 
yet the average rate of motion, he thinks, will not exceed 
that above proposed. With this opinion, Lubbock believes 
most geologists will agree, f 

By the estimates already given a basis is formed upon 
which a calculation can be made as to the time when this 
epoch began. At the time of the most intense cold the 
eccentricity of the earth's orbit was .0575 ; the difference in 
millions of miles between the greatest and least distances of 
the earth from the sun 10 i ; the number of days by which 
winter, occurring in aphelion was longer than the summer in 
perihelion 27.8; the mean temperature of the hottest surn- 

* "Antiquity of Man," pp. 282, 285. 
f " Pre-Historic Times," p. 417. 



GLACIAL EPOCH. 31 

mer month in the latitude of London when the summer 
occurs in perihelion, 113° ; the mean temperature of the 
coldest winter month in the latitude of London when the 
winter occurs in aphelion, 0° 7'. Sixty thousand years later the 
eccentricity of the earth's orbit was but .0332 ; the difference 
of distance in millions of miles was 6 ; number of winter days 
in excess, 16.1 ; mean of hottest month in latitude of London, 
95°, and mean of coldest month 12°. It is evident then at 
this time (one hundred and fifty thousand years ago) a 
"great thaw" had taken place and the glaciers driven back, 
although fifty thousand years later less intense cold set in 
again. If thirty thousand years be allowed for the "great 
thaw " from the extreme point of cold, and that extreme 
point to have been two hundred and ten thousand years ago, 
then one hundred and eighty thousand years ago the glaciers 
had become so broken lip as to allow vegetation to spring up 
in many localities, and the wild beasts to partially reassert 
their dominion. If to this be added the time required for the 
duration of the glacial epoch (two hundred and twenty-four 
thousand years) then the time when the ice began to accumu- 
late was four hundred and four thousand years ago. But if 
the tables of Mr. Croll be correct, their beginning could not 
haye been earlier than three hundred and fifty thousand 
years ago, as the eccentricity of the earth's orbit varied but 
little from the present, and five hundred and fifty thousand 
years ago it was almost identical with that of the present.* 
During the last stages of this ocean of ice it must have 

* Principles of Geology, vol. i. p. 285 ; " Pre-Historic Times/' 
p. 411. 

Mr. Croll believes that, owing to variations in the eccentricity of the 
earth's orbit " cold periods regularly recur every ten or fifteen thou- 
sand years ; but that at much longer intervals the cold, owing to 
certain contingencies, is extremely severe, and lasts for a great length 
of time ; and the last great glacial period occurred about two hundred 
and forty thousand years ago, and endured with slight alterations of 
climate for about one hundred and sixty thousand years." — Darwin's 
Origin of Species, p. 343. 



32 



ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 



melted very rapidly,* for great rivers were formed, and the 
water pouring down its icy bed sought other streams, and on 
the bosom of the earth swept away loose sediment, depositing 
it along the course of rivers and in caves of the earth, cover- 

Fig. 2. 




Stream issuing from a Glacier. 

ing the remains of man along with those of animals that 
perished during the long winter of ice. 

* It would be plausible to assume that the ice melted much more 
rapidly than is generally supposed. Charles Darwin, in his "Natu- 
ralist's Voyage around the World," p. 245, states that •■ during one 



GLACIAL EPOCH. 33 

Evidences of the Existence of Man. — The traces of man in 
the deposits made during the glacial epoch are numerous. 
Out of the many, the most noted will be given, with a view 
to their chronological order. 

In all probability the very oldest implements of the post- 
tertiary, and consequently the beginning of the glacial epoch, 
if not of the pliocene, are those found in the south of Hamp- 
shire, between Gosport and Southampton. They came from 
a tabular mass of drift which caps the tertiary strata. " The 
great bed of gravel resting on eocene tertiary strata^ in which 
these implements have been found, consists in most places of 
half-rolled or semi-angular chalk flints, mixed with rounded 
pebbles washed out of the tertiary strata. . . . Many of 
them exhibit the same colors and ochreous stain as do the 
flints in the gravel in which they lay." 

"West of the Southampton estuary, " on both sides of the 
opening at Bournemouth, flint tools of the ancient type have 
been met with in the gravel capping the cliffs. The gravel 
from which the flint tool was taken at Bournemouth is about 
one hundred feet above the level of the sea. . . . The 
gravel consists in great part of pebbles derived from tertiary 
strata." 

The oval flint implement discovered in gravel at the top 
of the Foreland cliff "is of the true palaeolithic type, and the 
gravel in which it is imbedded at the height of about eighty 
feet above the Level of the sea, may have once extended to the 
cliffs near Gosport ; in which case we should have to infer that 
the channel ca^ed the Solent had not yet been scooped out 
when this region was inhabited by palaeolithic man.'** 

It may be safely inferred that the implements in the 
above three enumerations were imbedded at about the same 
time. 

very dry and long summer, all the snow disappeared from Aconcagua, 
although it attains the prodigious height of twenty-three thousand 
feet. It is probable that much of the snow at these great heights is 
evaporated, rather than thawed." 

* " Principles of Geology/' pp. 567-569. 



34 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

The flint implements from the valley of the Somme, 
which have been of so much interest, and convinced so many 
sceptical geologists, belong to the early part of this epoch. 
This valley may be represented by Fig. 3. 

Fig. 3. 




\£ 



Chalk ^~g^ "Z!1ILti ■ — &*^ Chalk 

Section ackoss the Somme in Picardy. 

1. Peat, twenty to thirty feet thick, resting on gravel, a. 

2. Lower level gravel, with elephants 1 hones and flint tools covered with fluviatile 
loam, twenty to forty feet thick. 

3. Upper level gravel, with similar fossils, and overlying loam, in all thirty feet 
thick. 

4. Upland loam without shells, five or six feet thick. 

5. Eocene tertiary strata, resting on the chalk in patches. 

In explanation of the above it may be well to remark that 
No. 2 indicates the lower level gravels, and No. 3 the higher 
ones, which are from eighty to one hundred feet above the 
river. Of a later date than these is the peat, No. 1, which 
is from ten to thirty feet in thickness. Underneath the 
peat is a bed of gravel, a, from three to fourteen feet thick, 
resting on undisturbed chalk. But between the gravel and 
the peat is a thin layer of impervious clay. This section of 
the valley of the Somme is a pretty fair representation of the 
arrangements of the different beds at Abbeville, Amiens, and 
and St. Acheul. 

In these beds are the records of two drift periods, marked 
by 2 and 3. The two are separated by a layer of fresh- 
water deposits, which contains river shells and is sometimes 
as much as sixteen feet thick. The lower, or gray diluvium, 
(No. 2), marks the glacial epoch, as distinct from the glaciers 
of the reindeer epoch. In the lower gravel, lying immedi- 
ately upon the tertiary formation, were found the flint 
hatchets, together with the bones of the mammoth and fos- 
sil rhinoceros. 



GLACIAL EPOCH. 



35 



In order to understand the deposits still more clearly, tho 
following figure is given. 



Fig. 4. 







Section of a Gravel-pit at St. Acheul. 

1. Vegetable and made soil from two to three feet thick. 

2. Brown loam from four to five feet thick, containing a few angular flints. 

3. Bed of sandy marl from five to six feet thick, with land and fresh-water shells, 
covered with a thin layer of angular gravel from one to two feet thick. 

4. Abed of partially rounded gravel containing well-rolled tertiary pebbles. In 
this bed the flint implements are chiefly found— ten to fourteen feet thick. 

5. Formation of chalk. 

a. Part of elephant's molar, eleven feet from surface. 

b. Entire molar of mammoth {E primigenius), seventeen feet from surface. 

c. Position of flint hatchet, eighteen feet from surface. 

d. Gravel projecting five feet. 

At St. Acheul, in bed No. 4, were found large numbers of 
flint implements. Some of tliem have the shape of a spear- 
head, and are over seven inches in length. The oval-shaped 
hatchets are so rude in some instances as to require a prac- 
tised eye to decide their human origin. In the same bed are 
found small round bodies having a tubular cavity in the 
centre. Dr. Kigollot has suggested that these perforated 
stones or gravel were used as ornaments, possibly strung 
together as beads. 



36 



ANTIQUITY OF MAN". 



In this bed, Xo. 4, seventeen feet from the surface, was 
found a mammoth's tooth. About one foot below the tooth, 
in densely compressed gravel, was found a stone hatchet of an 
oval form. 

That this bed was formed by action of glaciers is shown, 

Fig. 5. 




Flint Implement from St. Acheul. 

Half the size of the original, which is seven and a half inches long. 

a. Side view. b. Same seen edgewise. 

"These spear-headed implements have been found in greater number, propor- 
tionally to the oval ones, in the upper level gravel at St. Acheul, than in any of the 
lower gravels in the valley of the Somme. In these last, the oval form predominates, 
especially at Abbeville. "'—Antiquity of Man, p. 114. 



GLACIAL EPOCH. 



37 



not only from the well-rounded tertiary pebbles, but also 
from the great blocks of hard sandstone, some of whichare 
over four feet in diameter. These large fragments not only 
abound at St. Acheul in both the higher and lower level 
gravels at Amiens, and at the higher level at Abbeville, but 
they are also traced far up the valley wherever the old dilu- 
vium occurs. All of these sandstones have been derived 
from the tertiary strata which once covered the chalk. 

Fig. 6. 




Flint Implement from Abbeville. 

a. Oval-shaped flint hatchet from Mautort near Abbeville, half size of original, 
which is five and a half inches long, from a bed of gravel underlying the fluvio- 
marine stratum. 

b. Same seen edgewise. 

c. Shows a recent fracture of the edge of the same at the point a, or near the top. 
This portion of the tool, c, is drawn of the natural size, the black central part being 
the unaltered flint, the white outer coating, the layer which has been formed by 
discoloration or bleaching since the tool was first made. 

The entire surface of Figure 6 must have been black when first shaped, and the 
bleaching to such a depth must have been the work of time, whether produced by 
exposure to the sun and air before it was imbedded, or afterward when it lay deep 
In the soil.— Antiquity of Man. 



38 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

As the flint implements of Abbeville and Amiens are the 
same as those of St. Acheul, and from the same beds, what 
has already been said will apply to them. These implements 
have been found in these localities in great numbers, as sev- 
eral thousand of them already taken from the beds will 
amply testify. 

From the gravel-pit in which were found the flint axes, 
at Abbeville, and close to the ancient chalk, was taken the 
celebrated human bone known as the jaw of Moulin-Quignon. 
It was cotemporary with the axes, and undoubtedly some of 
the flint implements there found were fashioned by the man 
of whom that jaw formed so necessary a part. 

This jaw-bone belonged to an old man, and is described as 
displaying "a tendency toward the animal structure in the 
shortness and breadth of the ascending ramus (the perpendic- 
ular portion of the lower jaw), the equal height of the two 
apophyses (a process or regular prominence forming a con- 
tinuous part of the body of the bone), the indication of 
prognathism (projecting jaw) furnished by the very obtuse 
angle at which the ramus joins the body of the bone.* 

Near the same locality other human bones were discovered 
which presented the same characteristics. 

Boucher de Perthes having pointed out that flint imple- 
ments could be found in the valley of the Seine, in beds 
similar to those of Abbeville, the antiquaries were soon 
rewarded and Boucher de Perthes' prediction was fulfilled. 
M. Gosse, of Geneva, found the Abbeville type of implements 
in the lowest diluvial deposits associated with the remains of 
animals of that period. 

The discovery made by Casiano de Prado, near Madrid, is 
very similar to those of Abbeville. " First, vegetable soil ; 
then about twenty-five feet of sand and pebbles, under which 
was a layer of sandy loam, in which, during the year 1850, a 
complete skeleton of the mammoth was discovered. Under- 



GLACIAL EPOCH. 39 

neath this stratum was about ten feet of coarse gravel, in 
which some flint axes, very closely resembling those of 
Amiens, have been discovered." * 

The remains of man are also preserved in caverns asso- 
ciated with the fossil bones of the mammoth, the woolly-haired 
rhinoceros, cave-bear, and other extinct quadrupeds. Among 
these should be noticed Kent's Hole, which has furnished a 
mine of w T ealth. Of his discoveries Godwin- Austin says : 
" Human remains and works of art, such as arrow-heads and 
knives of flint, occur in all parts of the cave, and throughout 
the entire thickness of the clay ; and no distinction founded 
on condition, distribution, or relative position can be ob- 
served, whereby the human can be separated from the other 
reliquiae," which included bones of the mammoth (E. primige- 
nius), rhinoceros (R. ticliorrhinus), cave-bear ( Ursus spelceus), 
cave-hyena (H. spelceus), and other mammalia. These 
researches were conducted in parts of the cave which had 
never been disturbed, and the works of man, in every instance, 
were procured from undisturbed loam or clay, beneath a thick 
covering of stalagmite ; and all these must have been intro- 
duced before the stalagmite flooring had been formed, f 
These specimens of man's handicraft were found far below 
the stalagmite floor. J Closely allied to Kent's Hole is Brix- 
ham Cave. The following gives the general succession of 
deposits forming the contents of the cavern : 

1. A layer of stalagmite varying from one to fifteen inches 
in thickness. 

2. Next below, ochreous cave-earth, from one foot to 
fifteen feet in thickness. 

3. Rounded gravel, in some places more than twenty feet 
in depth. 

* "Pre-Historic Times/'* p. 362. 

f " Antiquity of Man/' p. 97 ; " Pre-Historic Times,'' p. 315. 

X The " Science Record " for 1874, p. 501, in speaking of these imple- 
ments says, "At the very lowest estimate, the flint weapons were 
made half a million vears a^o.'' 



40 AXTIQUITY OJF MAN. 

In the second layer there were found the remains of the 
mammoth, rhinoceros, cave-bear, cave-hyena, cave-lion, rein- 
deer, and seven other species. Indiscriminately mixed with 
these bones were found many flint knives, but chiefly from 
the lowest part of the ochreous cave-earth, varying in depth 
from ten inches to thirteen feet. The antiquity of these can- 
not be doubted, from the simple fact, even if there was no 
other, that in close proximity to a very perfect flint tool was 
discovered the entire left hind leg of a cave-bear, and every 
bone in its natural position. From the bone earth there were 
taken fifteen knives, recognized, by the experienced antiqua- 
ries, as having been artificially formed. In the lowest gravel, 
underlying all, there were found imperfect specimens of flint 
knives. The fine layer of mud was deposited by the slow but 
regular action of water. Since these layers were formed the 
stream has cut its channel seventy-eight feet below its 
former level.* 

On both banks of the Meuse, at Maestricht (Hollerd) are 
terraces of gravel covered with loess. Below the city, on 
the left bank, one of these terraces projects into the allu- 
vial plain of the Meuse. During the construction of the 
canal the terrace was opened to a depth of sixty feet. The 
upper twenty feet consisted of loess and the lower forty 
feet of stratified gravel. Great numbers of molars, tusks, 
and bones of elephants, together with those of other mamma- 
lia, and a human lower jaw with teeth, were found in or near 
this gravel. The human jaw was at a depth of nineteen feet 
from the surface, in a stratum of sandy loam, beneath a 
stratum of pebbly and sandy beds, and immediately above the 
gravel. The stratum from which the jaw was taken was 
intact and had never been disturbed. But the jaw was some- 
what isolated, and the nearest fossil object was the tusk of an 
elephant six yards distant, though on a horizontal plane. 
This fossil is probably older than that discovered at Lahr. 

* " Antiquity of Man," p. 98. " Prc-IIistoric Times," p. 317. 



GLACIAL EPOCH. 41 

It was probably covered just before the gush of the water 
when it first began to flow from the gorges and had washed 
the ground at some distance from the ice.* 

The human skeleton from the undisturbed loess of the 
Khine, near Lahr, was found in nearly a horizontal position, 
but in such a manner as to forbid the idea of sepulchre. 
These bones were exhumed from a perpendicular cliif of 
solid loess, about five feet high. The town of Lahr is sit- 
uated four miles from, and about one hundred feet above, the 
Khine, and not far from the tributary valley drained by the 
Schutter, flowing from the Black Forest. 

In the alluvial plain into which the Schutter flows the 
the loess is two hundred feet thick. The loess rises eighty 
feet above the Schutter. At Lahr it has been denuded so as 
to form a succession of terraces on the right bank. It was in 
the lowest of these from which the skeleton was taken. Im- 
mediately below this bed there were found pebbles, and still 
lower down was a bed of gravel containing rounded stones of 
sandstone and gneiss from the Black Forest. 

There are several interesting facts connected with this 
discovery. M. Boue considers that the loess of the Lahr is 
continuous with that of the Khine, and before the loess had 
been denuded there was not less than eighty feet of loamy de- 
posit above the human skeleton. The glaciers had deposited 
their great gravel beds, and had began to melt. The melt- 
ing of them had formed a mixture of loam and gravel. Then 
when the torrents poured forth from the glaciers the loam was 
formed without the pebbles. The unfortunate man, whose 
remains were found, was buried far beneath the surface, dur- 
ing the very first part of the course of the violent streams 
pouring forth from the field of ice. The glaciers were then 
on the retreat, and the incautious man probably fell a victim 
while on the chase, f 

* " Antiquity of Man," p. 338 ; Buchner, 27. 
f "Antiquity of Man/' p. 510; Buchner, p. 27. 



42 ANTIQUITY OF MAJST. 

The cave of La Naulette, Belgium, afforded a jaw-bone 
similar to the Moulin-Quignon. The bone came from a 
river deposit of loam covered with a layer of stalagmite, and 
at a depth of thirteen feet from the surface. Associated with 
it were the remains of the mammoth, woolly-haired rhinoceros,, 
and flint implements. These implements present the same 
type as those of St. Acheul. With this jaw were also found a 
human ulna, two human teeth, and a fragment of a worked 
reindeer horn. This jaw-bone is very thick, round in form, 
and the projection of the chin is almost entirely absent. The 
chin is said to hold an intermediate position between that of 
the animals and those of the present race of men. The cavities 
for the reception of the canine teeth are very wide, and one 
of the most remarkable things is that the three molars are 
reversed, that is the first true molar is the smallest, and the 
last the largest. The inner surface of the jaw at the point of 
the suture or symphysis, forms a line obliquely directed up- 
wards. Taking the jaw all in all, it is the most ape-like 
human jaw ever discovered.* 

The flint implements from Hoxne were found under three 
different layers or beds. The first, vegetable, a foot and a 
half in depth. The second was clay, seven and a half feet 
thick. The third, a bed of sand, with shells one foot in thick- 
ness. The fourth layer, containing the implements was a bed 
of gravel two feet in depth. The number of these flints was 
so great that they were carried out by the baskets-full, and 
thrown into the ruts of the adjoining road. On account 
of the great number, this spot might have been the place 
where they were manufactured. Their date is not coeval 
with the bowlder clay, but undoubtedly belong, to the last 
of this epoch. 

The human bones found in the loess of the Ehine, near 
Colmar, were two fossilized fragments of the skull. They 
were found in undisturbed soil along with the fossil bones of 

/* Buclmer ; pp. 118, 30G. 



GLACIAL EPOCH. 43 

the extinct species of mammoth, horse, gigantic deer, aurochs, 
and other mammalia. The fragment of the skull "showed a 
depressed forehead, strongly projecting superciliary arches, 
and a type, on the whole, approaching the so-called dolicho- 
cephalic, or long-headed form." * These remains date so near 
the end of the glacial as to almost enter the inter-glacial. 

* Buchner, p. 239. 



CHAPTEE III. 

GLACIAL EPOCH — CONTINUED. 

Belgian Caverns.— The relics discovered by Dr. Schmer- 
ling, in the caves of Belgium, must be referred to the time 
of the retreat of the glaciers. The glaciers were still in 
existence, but their receding had freed immense tracts of land, 
and the space they now covered was small in proportion to 
their former extent. "Whether it be considered or not, that 
vegetation greatly flourished and the great wild beasts were 
rapidly increasing, one thing must be noticed, and that is, 
floods must have succeeded or followed closely upon the 
retreat of the ice. Many remains, referred to the glacial epoch, 
may in reality, have occupied the time of the floods occurring 
just previous to the commencement of the inter-glacial. 

The Belgian Caverns, near Liege, either belong exactly to 
the ice, or else to a period not far removed. Lyell considers 
the older monuments of the palaeolithic period to be the rude 
implements found in ancient river gravel and in the mud and 
stalagmite caves.* Caves of this description are those re- 
ported on by Dr. Schmerling. 

The caverns of the province of Liege were not the dens 
of wild beasts, but their contents had been swept in by the 
action of water. The bones of man " were of the same color, 
and in the same condition as to the amount of animal matter 
contained in them, as those of the accompanying animals, 
some of which, like the cave-bear, hyena, elephant, and rhi- 
noceros, were extinct ; others, like the wild-cat, beaver, wild 
boar, roe-deer, wolf, and hedgehog, still extant. The fossils 

* " Principles," vol. ii, p. 566. 



GLACIAL EPOCH. 45 

were lighter than fresh bones, except such as had their pores 
filled with carbonate of lime, in which case they were often 
much heavier. The human remains of most frequent occur- 
rence were teeth detached from the jaw, and the carpal, 
metacarpal, tarsal, metatarsal, and phalangial bones sepa- 
rated from the rest of the skeleton. The corresponding 
bones of the cave-bear, the most abundant of the accompany- 
ing mammalia, were also found in the Liege caverns more 
commonly than any others, and in the same scattered condi- 
tion/ 5 * In some of these caves, rude flint implements, of a 
triangular form, were found dispersed through the cave mud. 
Dr. Schmerling did not pay much attention to these, as he 
was engrossed in his osteological inquiries. The human 
bones were met with at all depths, in the cave mud and 
gravel, both above and below those of the extinct mammalia. 
The floors of these caverns were incrusted with stalag- 
mite, f In the cavern at Chokier there occur " three distinct 
beds of stalagmite, and between each of them a mass of 
breccia, and mud mixed with quartz pebbles, and in the 
three deposits the bones of extinct quadrupeds. " J 

FOSSIL SKULL OF THE ENGIS CAVE NEAR LIEGE. 

The fossil skull from the cavern of Engis was deposited 
at a depth of about five feet, under an osseous breccia contain- 
ing a tusk of the rhinoceros, the teeth of the horse, and the 
remains of small animals. The breccia was about three and 
one-fourth feet wide, and rose to the height of about five feet 
above the floor of the cavern. In the earth which contained 
the skull there was found, surrounding it on all sides, the 
teeth of the rhinoceros, horse, hyena, and bear, and with no 
marks of the earth having been disturbed. 

* " Antiquity of Man," p. 63. 

f It lias been estimated by the British Association that it requires 
twenty thousand years to produce a foot of stalagmite. — Science Becord. 
1874, p. 501. 

% " Principles," vol. ii, p,527. 



40 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

There was also found the cranium of a young person, in 
the floor of the cavern, besides an elephant's tooth. "When 
first observed, the skull was entire, but fell to pieces when 
removed from its position. Besides these there were found a 
fragment of a superior maxillary bone, with the molar teeth 
worn down to the roots, indicating that of an old man ; two 
vertebrae, a first and last dorsal ; a clavicle of the left side, 
belonging to a young individual of great stature ; two frag- 
ments of the radius, indicating a man of ordinary height ; a 
fragment of an ulna : some metacarpal bones ; six metatarsal, 
three phalanges of the hand and one of the foot. 

Dr. Schmerling found in this cave a pointed bone imple- 
ment incrusted with stalagmite and joined to a stone. 

Of the Engis skull Professor Huxley has remarked, "As 
Professor Schmerling observes, the base of the skull is de- 
stroyed, and the facial bones are entirely absent ; but the roof 
of the cranium, consisting of the frontal, parietal, and the 
greater part of the occipital bones, as far as the middle of the 
occipital foramen, is entire, or nearly so. The left temporal 
bone is wanting. Of the right temporal, the parts in the 
immediate neighborhood of the auditory foramen, the mas- 
toid process, and a considerable portion of the squamous 
element of the temporal, are well preserved." 

A piece of the occipital bone, which Schmerling seems to 
have missed, has since been fitted on to the rest of the cra- 
nium by Dr. Spring, the accomplished anatomist of Liege. 

" The skull is that of an adult, if not middle-aged man. 
The extreme length of the skull is 7.7 inches. Its extreme 
breadth, which corresponds very nearly with the interval 
between the parietal protuberances, is not more than 5.4 
inches. The proportion of the length to the breadth is there- 
fore very nearly as 100 to 70. If a line be drawn from the 
point at which the brow curves in towards the root of the 
nose, and which is called the ' glabella' (a, Fig. 8), to the 
occipital protuberance (d), and the distance to the highest 
point of the arch of the skull be measured perpendicularly 



Fig. 7. 




Professok T. H. HnxLEY. 



GLACIAL EPOCH. 



40 



from this line, it will be found to be 4.75 inches. Viewed 
from above, the forehead presents an evenly rounded curve, 
and passes into the contour of the sides and back of the skull, 
which describes a tolerably regular elliptical curve. 

" The front view shows that the roof of the skull w T as very 
regularly and elegantly arched in the transverse direction, 

Fig. 8. 




Side View of the Human Skull eound ix the Cave of Exgis. 

a. Superciliary ridge and glabella. b. Coronal suture. 

d. The occipital protuberance. 

find that the transverse diameter was a little less below the 
parietal protuberances, than above them. The forehead 
cannot be called narrow in relation to the rest of the skull, 
nor can it be called a retreating forehead ; on the contrary, 
the anteroposterior contour of the skull is well arched, so 
that the distance along that contour, from the nasal deppes- 
3 



50 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

sion to the occipital protuberance, measures about 13.75 
inches. The transverse arc of the skull, measured from one 
auditory foramen to the other, across the middle of the 
sagittal suture, is about 13 inches. The sagittal suture itself 
is 5.5 inches long. The superciliary prominences or brow- 
ridges (a) are well, but not excessively, developed, and are 
separated by a median depression. Their principal elevation 
is disposed so obliquely that I judge them to be due to large 
frontal sinuses. If a line joining the glabella and the occip- 
ital protuberance (a, d, Fig. 8) be made horizontal, no part 
of the occipital region projects more than one-tenth of an 
inch behind the posterior extremity of that line, and the upper 
edge of the auditory foramen is almost in contact with a line 
drawn parallel w T ith this upon the outer surface of the skull." * 

Some of the views expressed by Professor Huxley are at 
variance with those of other eminent scientists. Lubbock 
reports him as saying, " There is no mark of degradation 
about any part of its structure. It is, in fact, a fair average 
human skull, wdiich might have belonged to a philosopher, or 
might have contained the thoughtless brains of a savage." f 
Mr. Busk agrees and partially disagrees with Professor 
Huxley, for he remarked to Lyell, "Although the forehead 
was somewhat narrow, it might nevertheless be matched by 
the skulls of individuals of European race." J 

Dr. Schmerling, Buchner, and Vogt are arrayed against 
Huxley. The first says, "I hold it to be demonstrated that 
this cranium has belonged to a person of limited intellectual 
faculties, and we conclude thence that it belonged to a man 
of a low degree of civilization." § " Prom the narrowness of 
the frontal portion it belonged to an individual of small intel- 
lectual development." || Buchner says, "In its length and 

* " Man's Place in Nature," p. 146 
f "Pre-Historic Times," p. 337. 
% " Antiquity of Man," p. 80. 
§ " Man's Place in Nature," p. 143. 
| " Antiquity of Man," p. 80. 



GLACIAL EPOCH. 51 

narrowness, the slight elevation of its forehead, the form of 
the widely separated orbits and the well developed supra- 
orbital arches, it resembles, especially when viewed from 
above, the celebrated Neanderthal skull, but in general is far 
superior to this in its structure."* Carl Vogt "regards 
it, with reference to the proportion of length to breadth, 
as one of the most ill-favored, animal-like and simian of 
skulls." f 

The cause of this wide difference of opinion may arise 
from the failure to observe the fact that the older the forma- 
tion in which a skull is found, the lower is the type. The 
ordinary observer, judging by the cast of the skull, would see 
nothing ape-like about it, and certainly would fail to see any 
indications of a philosopher. 

NEANDERTHAL SKULL. 

The Neanderthal skull Avas taken from a small cave or 
grotto in the valley of the Dussel, near Diisseldorf, situated 
about seventy miles north-east of the region of the Liege 
caverns. The grotto is in a deep ravine sixty feet above the 
river, one hundred feet below the surface of the country, and 
at a distance of about ten feet from the Diissel Eiver. It is 
fifteen feet deep from the entrance {f), which is seven or 
eight feet wide. Before the cavern had been injured, it 
opened upon a narrow plateau lying in front. The floor of 
the cave was covered four or five feet in thickness with a 
deposit of mud or loam, and containing some rounded frag- 
ments of chert. Two laborers, in removing this deposit, first 
noticed the skull, placed near the entrance, and further in 
met with the other bones. As the bones were not regarded 
as of any importance, at the time of their discovery, only the 
larger ones have been preserved. 

Some discussion has arisen in respect to the geological 
time of these bones. There was no stalagmite overlying the 
mud or loam in which the skeleton was found, and no other 
* Bucliner, p. 262. f #!*• p. 262. 



ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 



bones met with save the tusk of a bear. There is no certain 
data given whereby its position may be known. Professor 
Huxley declares that the bones " indicate a very high anti- 
quity."* Buchner is very positive in his statement, and 
declares that "the loam-deposit which partly fills the caves 
of the Neanderthal and the clefts and fissures of its lime- 
stone mountains, and in which both the Neanderthal bones 
and the fossil bones and teeth of animals were imbedded, is 
exactly the same that, in the caverns of the Neanderthal, 
covers the whole limestone mountain with a deposit from ten 
to twelve feet in thickness, and the diluvial origin of which 
is unmistakable. "f Dr. Fuhlrott says, "The position and 

Fig. 9. 




Section of the Neanderthal Cave. 

a. Cavern sixty feet above the Dussel, and one hundred feet below the surface of 
the country at c. 

b. Loam covering the floor of the cave near the bottom of which the human skele- 
ton was found. 

c. a. Rent connecting the cave with the upper surface of the country. 

d. Superficial sandy loam. 

e. Devonian limestone. 

/. Terrace, or ledge of rock. 

general arrangement of the locality in which they were found, 
place it, in my judgment, beyond doubt that the bones 
belong to the diluvium, and therefore to primitive times, i. e. 
they come down to us from a period of the past when our 
native country was still inhabited by various kinds of animals, 
* " Man's Place in Nature," p. 158. f Buchner. p. 241. 



GLACIAL EPOCH. .53 

especially mammoths and cave-bears, which have long since 
disappeared out of the series of living creatures."* 

The diluvial or glacial origin of the Neanderthal skull is 
still further confirmed by the discoveries made, in the 
summer of 1865, in the Teufelskammer. This cavern is 
situated one hundred and thirty paces from the one in which 
the human bones were found, and on the same side of the 
river. In the loam-deposit of this cave were found numerous 
fossil bones and teeth of the rhinoceros, cave-bear, cave- 
hyena, and other extinct animals. " A great part of these 
bones, especially those of the cave-bears, agree in color, 
weight, density, and the preservation of their microscopic 
structure, with the human bones found in the Feldhofner 
Cave (in which the Neanderthal man was found), and both 
are covered with the same dendrites, or tree-like markings."! 

Before entering into a description and discussion of this 
remarkable skull, an enumeration of the other bones will be 
given. All the bones are characterized by their unusual 
thickness, and the great development of all the elevations 
and depressions for the attachment of muscles. The two 
thigh bones were in a perfect state, also the right humerus 
and radius ; the upper third of the right ulna ; the left ulna 
complete, though pathologically deformed, the coronoid 
process being so much enlarged by bony growth that flexure 
of the elboAV beyond a right angle was impossible ; the left 
humerus is much slenderer than the right, and the upper 
third is wanting. Its anterior fossa for the reception of the 
coronoid process is filled up with a bony growth, and, at 
the same time, the olecranon process is curved strongly 
downwards. The indications are that an injury sustained 
during life was the cause of this defect. There was an ilium, 
almost perfect ; a fragment of the right scapula ; the ante- 
rior extremity of a rib of the right side, and two hinder 
portions and one middle portion of ribs resembling more the 
ribs of a carnivorous animal than those of man. This 
* Buclmer, p. 210 \ Ibid. p. 211 



54 



ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 



abnormal condition lias arisen from the powerful develop- 
ment of the thoracic muscles. 

The cranium is thus described by Professor Huxley. " It 
has an extreme length of 8 inches, while its breadth is only 
5f inches, or in other words, its length is to its breadth as 
100 is to 72. It is exceedingingly depressed, measuring 
only about 3.4 inches from the glabello-occipital line to 
the vertex. The longitudinal arc, measured in the same way 

Fig. 10. 




Side View of the Human Skull from Feldhofner Cave, in 
the Neanderthal, near Dusseldorf. 



a. The superciliary ridge and glabella. 

b. The coronal suture. 



c. The apex of the lambdoidal suture. 
d. The occipital protuberance. 



as in the Engis skull, is 12 inches ; the transverse arc cannot 
be exactly ascertained, in consequence of the absence of the 
temporal bones, but was probably about the same, and cer- 
tainly exceeded 10£ inches. The horizontal circumference is 
23 inches. But this great circumference arises largely from 
the vast development of the superciliary ridges, though the 



GLACIAL EPOCH. 55 

perimeter of the brain case itself is not small. The large 
superciliary ridges give the forehead a far more retreating 
appearance than its internal contour would bear out. To an 
anatomical eye the posterior part of the skull is even more 
striking than the anterior. The occipital protuberance occu- 
pies the extreme posterior end of the skull, when the glabello- 
occipital line is made horizontal, and so far from any part of 
the occipital region extending beyond it, this region of the 
skull slopes obliquely upward and forward, so that the lamb- 
doidal suture is situated well upon the upper surface of the 
cranium. At the same time, notwithstanding the great 
length of the skull, the sagittal suture is remarkably short 
(4J inches) and the squamosal suture is very straight."* 
....'* The cranium, in its present condition, contains about 
sixty-three English cubic inches of water. As the entire 
skull could hardly have held less than twelve cubic inches 
more, its minimum capacity may be estimated at seventy-five 
cubic inches. ... It has certainly not undergone com- 
pression, and, in reply to the suggestion that the skull is that 
of an idiot, it may be urged that the onus proiandi lies with 
those who adopt the hypothesis. Idiocy is compatible with 
very various forms and capacities of the cranium, but I know 
of none which present the least resemblance to the Neander- 
thal skull. v f 

Professor Huxley describes this skull to be the most ape- 
like of all the human skulls he has ever seen, and in its 
examination ape-like characters are met with in all its 
parts." X Buchner says that the face of the Neanderthal 
man must have presented a frightfully bestial and savage, or 
ape-like expression (see frontispiece). § Professor Schaaff- 
hausen and Mr. Busk have stated that " this skull is the 
most brutal of all known human skulls, resembling those of 
the apes not only in the prodigious development of the super- 
ciliary prominences and the forward extension of the orbits, 

* " Man's Place in Nature," p. 164. % Buchner, p. 116. 

t " Antiquity of Man," p. 84. § Ibid., p. 53. 



Ob ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

but still more in the depressed form of the brain-case, in the 
straightness of the squamosal suture, and in the complete 
retreat of the occiput forward and upward, from the superior 
occipital ridges. "* 

Professor Schaaffiiausen and Dr. Buchner regarded this 
skull as a race-type, and Professor Huxley has said " that it 
truly forms only the extreme member of a series leading by 
slow degrees to the highest and best developed forms of 
human skulls." f 

That this skull is a race-type is evident from the fact 
that it is not an isolated case. The fragment of the skull 
from the loess of the Ehine (Alsace), by its depressed fore- 
head and strongly projecting superciliary arches, greatly 
resembles the Neanderthal skull. The skull from the calca- 
reous turf of COnstatt, in its low, narrow forehead and strong 
superciliary arches, resembles the Neanderthal. J The cra- 
nium found in bone breccia, in Cochrane's Cave (Gibraltar), 
"resembles, in all essential particulars, including its great 
thickness, the far-famed Neanderthal skull. Its discovery 
adds immensely to the scientific value of the Neanderthal 
specimen, if only as showing that the latter does not repre- 
sent, as many have hitherto supposed, a mere individual pecu- 
liarity, but that it may have been characteristic of a race 
extending from the Ehine to the Pillars of Hercules. " § In 
speaking of the Neanderthal skull, Professor Schaarfhausen 
says, " It is worthy of notice that a similar, although smaller 
projection of the superciliary arches has generally been found 
in the skulls of savage races. . . . The remarkably 
small skull from the graves on the island of Moen, examined 
by Professor Eschricht ; the two human skulls, described by 
Dr. Kutorga, from the government of Minsk (Kussia), one of 
which, especially, shows a great resemblance to the Neander- 
thal skull ; the human skeleton found near Plau, in Mecklen- 
burg, in a very ancient grave, in a squatting position, . . . 

* " Antiquity of Man," p. 84. % Buchner, p. 242. 

f Buchner, p.. 54. § Denton's " Our Planet," p. 270. 



GLACIAL EPOCH. 57 

the skull of which indicates a very distant period, when 
man stood on a very low grade of development ; " and 
other similar discoveries near Mecklenburg, their skulls like- 
wise presenting short, retreating foreheads and projecting 
eyebrows. * 

Professor Huxley considers that the Borreby skulls, be- 
longing to the stone age of Denmark, " show a great resem- 
blance to the Neanderthal skull, a resemblance which is 
manifested in the depression of the cranium, the receding 
forehead, the contracted occiput and the prominent supercil- 
iary ridges." f 

Human Skull of Arno. — The human skull, found by 
Professor Cocchi in the valley of the Arno, near Florence, in 
diluvial clay, together with various bones of extinct species of 
animals, is considered by Carl Vogt to be of like antiquity 
with the Engis and Neanderthal skulls. J 

* Buchner, p. 265. \ Ibid., p, 54. % Ibid., p. 24.2. 

3* 



CHAPTER IV. 

TRE-GLACIAL EPOCHS. 

The age immediately preceding the glacial, and conse- 
quently the post-tertiary, is known as the pliocene epoch, 
the last of the tertiary. 

The tertiary period began with the close of the creta- 
ceous. A map of the early tertiary period would represent 
parts of Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, the 
whole of Florida, the lower parts of Alabama, Mississippi, 
Texas, the whole of Louisiana, and the adjoining territory on 
both sides of the Mississippi, as far as Cairo, as covered with 
water. Also a great sea extending through Nebraska and 
the western part of Dacotah, and taking a north-westerly 
course until it emptied into the Pacific. In Europe, the 
great basin of Paris (excepting a zone of chalk), the greater 
part of Spain and Italy, the whole of Belgium, Holland, 
Prussia, Switzerland, Hungary, Wallachia, and northern 
Russia, as one vast sheet of water. England and France 
were connected by a band of rocks. 

About the middle of the tertiary, a tropical climate and 
tropical fauna and flora spread over the w T hole of Europe. 
Palms, cedars, laurels, and cinnamon trees flourished in the 
valleys of Switzerland, and more than thirty different species 
of oak adorned the forests of that time. 

In Europe, in the eocene, there have been found thirty 
species of crocodiles ; many species of snakes, one twenty 
feet long ; a dozen species of birds ; tapirs (Palceotliere and 
Lopliiodoii), two species of hogs, some ruminants and rodents. 



PRE-GLACIAL EPOCHS. 59 

In the miocene, among Pachyderms may be mentioned the 
mastodon, elephant, dinothere (an elephantine animal), rhi- 
noceros, hog, horse, tapir, and hoppopotamus ; among 
Carnivores, the machairodus, hyena, lion, and dog ; among 
Ruminants, the camel, deer, and antelope. There were 
monkeys, and many other animals. 

In the pliocene, besides those enumerated, are found the 
bear, hare, and other animals. 

In the tertiary beds of America have been found masto- 
dons, elephants, rhinoceroses, deer, camels, foxes, wolves, 
horses, whales, and other mammalia. 

Owing to the great lapse of time it cannot be expected 
that many traces of man will be discovered in this early 
period. 

Upon theoretical grounds Lyell thought it very probable 
that man lived in the pliocene ; but in relation to miocene 
time, he says, " Had some other rational being, representing 
man, then flourished, some signs of his existence could hardly 
have escaped unnoticed, in the shape of implements of stone 
or metal, more frequent and more durable than the osseous 
remains of any of the mammalia." * Sir J. Lubbock, while 
admitting the existence of man in the pliocene, goes farther 
and says, "If man constitutes a separate family of mamma- 
lia, as he does in the opinion of the highest authorities, then, 
according to all palseontological analogies, he must have had 
representatives in miocene times. We need not, however, 
expect to find the proofs in Europe ; our nearest relatives in 
the animal kingdom are confined to hot, almost to tropical 
climates, and it is in such countries that we are most likely 
to find the earliest traces of the human race." f Alfred B. 
Wallace out-distances any of his cotemporaries, for he says, 
"We are enabled to place the origin of man at a much more 
remote geological epoch than has yet been thought possible. 
He may even have lived in the miocene or eocene period, 

* "Pre-Historic Times," p. 422. f -*&#., P- 428. 



CO ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

when not a single mammal was identical in form w T ith any 
existing species."* 

Some of the older and some of the recent discoveries of 
geologists have settled the question of tertiary man ; and the 
"signs of his existence," in the "shape of implements of 
stone/" as demanded by Lyell, have been furnished. 

Man in the Pliocene. — It has already been intimated that 
the evidences of man are but few in this early epoch. The 
first example, in the following list, borders closely on the 
glacial, but far enough removed as to be referred to the 
pliocene. 

In the construction of a canal between Stockholm and 
Gothenburg it was necessary to cut through one of those hills 
called osars, or erratic blocks, which were deposited by the 
drift-ice during the glacial epoch. Beneath an immense 
accumulation of osars, with shells and sand, there was 
discovered in the deepest layer of subsoil, at a depth of about 
sixty feet, a circular mass of stones, forming a hearth, in the 
middle of which there were wood-coals. No other hand than 
that of man could have performed the work, f 

In the pliocene beds in the neighborhood of the town of 
Savonia in Liguria, M. A. Issel found several bones which 
presented all the physical signs of very high antiquity. Dr. 
Buchner is of the opinion that before these bones can be em- 
ployed as satisfactory evidence they must have a more 
accurate test by scientific authorities. J 

In the upper pliocene beds at St. Prest (France), M. Des- 
noyers found traces of human action on the bones of animals 
Delonging to the tertiary. These fractures are analogous to 
those of human action observed on bones from the glacial 
period, and identical with those made by northern tribes of 
the present day, on the skulls of ruminants. The marked 
bones found were those of the Southern elephant (E. merid- 
ionalis), rhinoceros (R. leptorinus), hippopotamus major, 

* Wallace's " Natural Selection, p. 322." 

f Buchner, pp. 34, 252. \ Buchner, p. 242. 



TOE-GLACIAL EPOCHS. CI 

r.scyeral species of deer, and two of the ox. Carl Vogt states 
that this discovery is not only genuine, but also, the forma- 
tion in which the bones were found is decidedly tertiary. It is 
further characterized by the presence of the southern elephant 
(E. meridionalis). As this elephant became extinct before 
the glacial age, the bones consequently precede the glacial, 
and the age of the cave-bear, the mammoth, and tichorrine 
rhinoceros. The eminent French naturalist, Quatrefages, 
confirms the testimony of Desnoyers.* 

The conclusions of Desnoyers are confirmed beyond a 
doubt by the more recent discoveries of Abbe Bourgeois. 
In the same tertiary strata of St. Prest, in which were found 
the marked or fractured bones, Bourgeois discovered worked 
flints, including flakes, awls, and scrapers, f 

A human skull, belonging to the pliocene, was found by 
James Matson, at Altaville, in Calaveras county, California, 
at a depth of one hundred and thirty feet, under five beds of 
gravel separated by five layers of lava, associated with the 
bones of an extinct rhinoceros, camel, and horse. The base 
of the skull is imbedded in a mass of bone-breccia and small 
pebbles of volcanic rock. The shape of the skull resembles 
that of the Digger Indians, and is of remarkable thickness. J 

*/Buchner, p. 31 ; " Pre-Historic Times;' p. 420. 

f Buchner, p. 32 ; " Pre-Historic Times/' p. 421. 

\ Denton's " Our Planet," p. 270 ; " American Phrenological Jour- 
nal, Feb." 1874. 

Having seen the statement in one of the newspapers that this 
skull was not genuine, but a joke played on Professor Whitney, I wrote 
to Professor W. Denton of Wellesley, Masschussetts, on 19th March 
1875, inquiring about it. A few days later I received from him the 
statement that he had visited the place where the skull was found; 
that certain persons assured him that Professor Whitney had been the 
victim of a joke. Yet these persons had never seen the skull, and were 
prejudiced against Professor Whitney. The persons who were best 
informed had every reason to believe the statements made by Pro- 
fessor Whitney were true. The skull is a very remarkable one, and 
stands alone for the enormous size of the orbits, and I have good rea- 
sons to believe it to have been found as stated. 



62 ANTIQUITY OF MAK. 

Man in the Miocene* — M. Bourgeois lias found, in a 
stratum of miocene near Pontlevoy, numerous worked flints, 
and other flints which have been subjected to the action of 
heat. These works of man were associated with the remains 
of the acerotherium (an extinct species allied to the rhinoce- 
ros), and beneath five distinct beds, one of which contained 
the rolled bones of rhinoceros, mastodon, and dinotherium. f 

M. Tardy found a flint-flake of undoubted workmanship 
in the miocene beds of Aurillac (Auvergne), together with 
the remains of dinotherium giganteam, and machaerodus 
latidens. J 

M. Bourgeois reports that Abbe Delaunay had found near 
Pouance (Maine-et-Loire), fossil bones of a halitherium (an 
herbivorous cetacean of the miocene), with evident signs of 
having been operated upon by cutting instruments. § 

In the miocene gravel beds of Colorado and Wyoming 
territories, chert-flakes, hammers, chisels, knives, and 
wrought shells have been found. || 

Eocene. — As yet geologists have failed to discover any 
traces of man in the Eocene epoch. 

* " Several geologists are convinced, from direct evidence, that 
glacial periods occurred during the miocene and eocene formations, 
not to mention still more ancient formations." — Darwin's Origin of 
Species, p. 343. 

t tl Pre-Historic Times," p. 421 ; Buchner, 32. 

X " Pre-Historic Times," p. 422. 

§ Buchner, p. 32. 

| •' American Phrenological Journal," Feb. 1874. 



CHAPTER V. 

CONDITIO]* OF MAN IN THE EAKLIEST TIMES. 

Of the first appearance of man on the globe there is no 
precise knowledge. His origin is a mystery. The place of 
his birth is generally supposed to be in Central Asia. There 
the geologist looks with a longing eye, and hopes ultimately 
to unravel, not only the hidden mystery of the birth-place of 
his race, but also, how or through what natural process he 
sprang into existence. 

If the miocene be the earliest point in his history, and 
Central Asia the place of his nativity, then he was ushered 
upon the scene of life during the period of, and surrounded 
by, the numerous fauna of India. At this time her mam- 
malia included, besides the quadrumana, elephant (seven 
species), mastodon (three species), rhinoceros (five species), 
horse (three species), hippopotamus (four to seven species), 
hog (three species), camel, giraffe, sivatherium (an elephan- 
tine stag, having four horns and supposed to have had the 
bulk of an elephant and greater height), antelope, musk- 
deer, sheep, ox (several species), dinotherium, porcupine, 
species of hyena, lion, and many others. 

It cannot be presumed that man's intellectual faculties 
were ordinarily developed, as it would not be natural to 
suppose he was superior to that of later times. Judging 
from the remains of later times, man could have been but 
very little removed from the brute. It is natural to suppose 
that at first he had no fire, no weapons of offence or defence. 
His food must have been the herbs, roots, and the fruits 
of the tree, possibly with an occasional morsel of raw meat. 



64 ANTIQUITY OP MAX. 

His pillow was a stone, his retreat a cave or the boughs of a 
wide-spreading tree, and his clothing a natural coat of hair. 

In the presence of the fierce beasts, man's domain might 
seem to be of short duration. Providence has ordered all 
things wisely. Placed low in the scale of life — brutal, self- 
ish, prowling, yet cautious — man, by the very force of 
circumstances, was to develop gradually the powers of his 
mind. /With the elephant and the mastodon he could not 
cope nor would they molest him. To the fierce carnivora he 
might fall a prey. From these he could flee, and find a 
shelter in the tops of the trees or some secure fastness of the 
earth. Learning his own strength by experience, he would 
venture forth on excursions, and meet face to face his deadly 
foe. For self-defence he discovered, probably by accident, 
that a club w T as a powerful weapon with which to beat back 
his fierce opponent. Gradually he came to learn that a sharp 
flint driven into the end of a club was a safer and more 
deadly weapon. With this he could withstand an unequal 
contest. 

The mode of life, together with the trials of his strength, 
developed his muscular system. His muscles became large 
and tough, and his bones thick and heavy. The earliest type 
of man is generally supposed to be dolichocephalic, or long- 
headed. The walls of the skull w r ere thick, and the ctoavii 
low. He was of ordinary stature, but built for action, and 
of great power. His make-up was the result of his sur- 
roundings. 

His advancement was very slow. Throughout the entire 
length of the miocene and pliocene epochs it is not traceable. 
There was no revolution in his mind ; one step in advance 
would have been a mighty leap. Nor could it be expected 
that there should be rapid progress. The mind was brutal ; 
and all the instincts sensual. But there was pending a 
mighty change. The tropical climate should change into a 
winter of snow and ice. Man should feel it, and be benefited 
by the new danger. His sluggish mind should be quickened, 



C0XDITI0X OF MAX IX THE EAIILIEST TIMES. C5 

-and the inventive genius should be called into action. The 
sun no longer could give its heat. The forests grew cold, the 
chilling winds swept over the plains, and the retreat in the 
cave was damp and forbidding. The wild beasts were either 
dying of cold, or else becoming clothed with thick, long hair, 
and retreating before the accumulating snow. Man earnestly 
looked about him. He suffered greatly, and his numbers 
grew less. Fire had been produced. How, no one can tell ; 
possibly by accident. He now became more careful of the 
fire, and with brand in hancl he went from place to place 
kindling the fires at the various resting-places. JS"or was this 
sufficient. His ingenuity was taxed to its greatest extent. 
Colder and colder grew the winds. The snow, coming in 
great flakes, was soon consolidated, and became as ice. The 
body could not be kept warm. Clothing must be had, and 
this must be furnished by the wild beasts. Their hides must 
assist in protecting the life of man. The stiffened, frozen 
animals would not alone furnish sufficient covering. Knives 
must be invented. From the flint rude knives were fashioned, 
by means of which the skins were removed and transferred to 
the bodies of men. But the long winter continuing, the lives 
of the living animals must be forfeited, both for the flesh and 
and the skins. Eude, almost shapeless arrow-heads were, 
produced. Wood must be had with which to warm and 
cook, and rude rafts formed, by means of which the swelling 
rivers might be crossed. Then those stone hatchets of the 
Somme were shaped, and answered the purpose. 

Man was at last prepared to face the rigors of winter, the 
perils of ice, and secure himself against starvation. Not con- 
tent with his conflicts with nature, his brutal passion is 
aroused against his fellows. Death-dealing blows fall rapidly 
upon each other, the blood flows freely, the bones give way, 
and the weaker one has succumbed. There are fierce conten- 
tions over the common prey, and the strong impose upon the 
weak. True to his instinct, he is gregarious. He lives in com- 
munities ; and the more daring — the hunters — having their 



GG AXTIQUITY OF MAX. 

common places of meeting, fashion their weapons, and vie 
with each other in feats of prowess. 

During the glacial epoch the condition of man must have 
remained unchanged, after he had supplied himself with rude 
stone weapons. His time was spent, for the most part, in 
self-preservation. He was retreating before, yet bounding 
over, the frozen flood in pursuit of game. This experience 
must ultimately tell for good. When the glaciers began to 
recede, man followed closely, and forgot not the value of those 
stone weapons which had secured food for himself. They 
served against the cave-bear, cave-hyena, cave-lion, and 
would be of great service in the ages yet to come. By a little 
remodelling they could be used to greater advantage; and this 
change of shape was accomplished, and other uses of flint 
were made known. 

Man's form, aspect, and true position are comprehended 
by the relics of the glacial age. The human bones tell a tale 
which any anatomist may read, and even one not well skilled 
in the art. The primitive type is no mystery, and those 
fossil bones tell of the terrific strifes of by-gone times. 

The Neanderthal man has already been described. Its 
structure is animal. Its history agrees with the. generally 
received idea of primitive man as conceived by the geologist. 
The illustration (frontispiece) presents him bestial and ape- 
like. A powerful organization, and well adapted to those 
times. His bones tell of fearful conflicts. He lived to an 
old age, as the traces of every suture are effaced. His skull 
was very thick. The strong, prominent superciliary arches 
denote large perceptives, making him watchful and always on 
the alert. Those bones tell of a terrible conflict. The left 
arm was broken ; who knows but in a contest with the great 
cave-bear. He survived the contest and lived to see that arm 
dwindle and become almost useless. Over the right eye he 
received a blow, from some source, so great as to carry away 
a portion of the bone. The claw of a cave-bear, or a flint 
weapon in the hand of one of his race, may have produced 



CONDITION OF MAIS' IK THE EARLIEST TIMES. G7 

tliat fracture. Still lie lived, and the wound healed. All 
this tells of his strength and hardihood. It gives an inside 
view of the wonderful hardships and vicissitudes of primeval 
man. 

The Engis skull belongs to the same type, though less 
bestial. Possibly this individual did not enter upon the 
chase, and engage in the manly pursuits of those times. He 
may have been an adviser or a dandy ; or, his ingenuity may 
have led him to the vocation of fashioning weapons and im- 
plements from the flint. 

In the time of the Engis man there were large as well as 
short, heavy-set men. In the same cavern there was found a 
clavicle belonging to a young person who must have been of 
great stature. 

The jaws of La Naulette and Moulin-Quignon display a 
great tendency to animal structure, and confirm the impres- 
sions as given of the primitive condition of man during the 
glacial and pre-glacial ages. 



CHAPTER VI. 

INTER-GLACIAL EPOCH. 

The glaciers have departed. Summer comes again. 
The forests bloom and the wild beast roams about. Many 
species withstood the long siege of cold : others perished ; 
still others followed the ice as it retreated, preferring the 
cold to the coming heat. The floods had abated and man 
spread himself over the different tracts blooming with flowers 
and radiant with earthly splendors. 

The evidences of man's existence during this period are 
numerous, consisting in works of art and fossil remains. 
Only a few examples are given, as not many will be required 
to present the evidence and show man's condition. 

The hyena-den at Wokey Hole, explored by Mr. Daw- 
kins, affords specimens of the works of man. When discov- 
ered this den was filled to the roof with debris. Under this 
rubbish was found several layers of the excrement of the 
cave-hyena (//. spelced), each of which indicates an old floor 
and a separate period of occupation. 

The implements were under these layers of excrement, 
showing that the cave had been occupied by the hyenas after 
the time of the savages. These implements had not been 
disturbed by the action of water. In the bone earth along 
with the remains of the cave-hyena were found those of the 
mammoth, Siberian rhinoceros, (R. t ichor rhiniis), gigantic ox 
Bos primigenius), gigantic Irish deer (Megaceros Ilibemicus), 
reindeer, cave-bear, cave-lion {Felis spelcva), wolf {Canis 
luptis), fox {Canis vulpes\ and the teeth and bones of the 
horse in great numbers. Intermixed with these bones were 



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INTER-GLACIAL EPOCH. 



71 



chipped flints, a bleached flint weapon of the spear-head 
Amiens type, and arrow-heads made of bone. 

In the cavern of Maccagnone, in Sicily, there were 
found ashes and rude flint implements in a breccia containing 
the bones of the elephant (E. antiques), hyena, a large bear, 
iion, (probably F. spelcea), and large numbers of bones 

Fig. 12. 




Section of the Sepulchral Grotto, in tiie Hill of Fajoles, 

Atjrignac. 

a. Vault in which the seventeen human skeletons were found. 

b. Layer of made ground, two feet thick, inside the grotto in which a few human 
bones, with entire bones of extinct and living species of animals, and many works 
of art, were imbedded. 

c. Layers of ashes and charcoal eight inches thick, containing broken, burned, and 
gnawed bones of extinct and living mammalia, also hearth-stones and works of art ; 
no human bones. 

d. Deposit with similar contents ; also a few scattered cinders. 

e. Talus of rubbish washed down from the hill above. 
/, g. Slab of rock which closed the vault. 

i.f. Rabbit-burrow. 

//, Tc. Original terrace. 

N. Nummulitic limestone. 



72 ANTIQUITY OF -MAN. 

belonging to the hippopotamus. The concrete of ashes hail 
once filled the cavern, and a large piece of bone breccia was 
still cemented to the roof. 

The vast number of hippopotamuses implies that the physi- 
cal condition of the country was different from what it is at 
present. The bone breccia cemented to the roof, and coated 
with stalagmite, testifies that the cave, at some time since the 
formation of the breccia, has been washed out. The exact 
time of the formation of this breccia cannot be given, but, in 
all probability, not long after the extinction of the cave-bear, 
if not before. 

The cave or grotto of Aurignac, in which the seventeen 
human skeletons were found, was carefully examined by 
Lartet eight years after its discovery. The recess was formed 
in nummulitic limestone. In front of the grotto, and next to 
the limestone {c, Fig. 12) was a layer of ashes and charcoal, 
eight inches thick, containing hearth-stones, works of art, and 
broken, burned, and gnawed bones of extinct and recent 
mammalia. Immediately above this layer (d) Avas another, of 
made ground, two feet thick, extending into the grotto ; and 
its contents similar to the other, save that within the grotto 
were found a few human bones. The grotto was closed by a 
slab, and the made earth without was covered by a talus of 
rubbish (c), washed down from the hill above. 

In these layers were found not less than one hundred flint 
instruments, consisting of knives, projectiles, sling-stones, 
chips, and a stone made for the purpose of modelling the 
flints. The bone implements were barbless arrows, a well- 
shaped and sharply pointed bodkin made of the horn of the 
roe-deer, and other tools made of reindeer horn. Besides 
these there were found eighteen small round and flat plates, 
of a white shelly substance, made of some species of cockle 
(cardium), pierced through the middle ; also the tusk of a 
young cave-bear, the crown of which had been carved in imi- 
tation of the head of a bird. 

The following is a list of the different species found in the 



INfER-GLACIAL EPOCH. 73 

layers, together with the approximate number of individuals 
belonging to each : 

L— CARNIVORA. 

Number of individuals 

1. Cave Bear ( U. spelceus) 5-6 

2. Brown Bear ( JJ. arctos) 1 

3. Badger (Meles taxus) 1-2 

4. Polecat {Putorius vulgaris) .. < 1 

5. Cave Lion {Fells spelma) 1 

6. Wild Cat ( Felis Catusferus) 1 

7. Hyena {H. spelcea) 5-6 

8. Wolf (Canis lupus) 3 

9. Fox (C. viclpes) 18-20 

II.— HERBIVORA. 

1. Mammoth {E. primigenius) Two molars and an astragalus. 

2. Rhinoceros {R. tichorrhinus) 1 

3. Horse (Equus caballus) 12-15 

4. Ass (E. asinus) 1 

5. Boar (Sus scrofa) Two incisors. 

6. Stag (Cervus elephas) 1 

7. Gigantic Irish Deer {Megaceros Hibernicus) 1 

8. Roebuck (C. capreolus) 3-4 

9. Reindeer {G. tarandus) 10-12 

10. Aurochs {Bison Europceus) 12-15 

The bones on the outside of the grotto were found to be 
split open, as if for the extraction of the marrow, and many 
of them burned. The spongy parts were wanting, having 
been gnawed off by the hyenas. 

M. Lartet came to the conclusion that this grotto was a 
place of sepulchre, and the broken or split bones were the 
remnants of the funeral feasts, This he argued from the 
fact that the bones within the grotto were not split, broken, 
or gnawed, save the astragalus of the mammoth. This meat 
was placed in the grotto, probably, as an offering to the dead. 
The bones without the cave were scraped, and while the men 
were yet engaged in the funeral feast, the hyenas prowled 
about the spot, and at the close of the banquet, devoured the 



74 ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 

flesli that remained. The slab in front of the cave debarred 
their entrance, and consequently the bones and human 
remains within were left untouched. 

The observations made by M. Cartailhac, in 1870, lead to 
different conclusions. On close inspection, he discovered a 
difference in the color of the walls of the cave, indicating that 
the lower deposit was of a yellow color, and the next above 
of a much lighter tint. In the crevices of the lower he 
found a tooth of the rhinoceros, one of the reindeer, and 
some fractured bones of the cave-bear. In the higher deposit 
occurred some small bones of living animals and of man, and 
a fragment of pottery. From these evidences, M. Cartailhac 
inferred that the lower deposits of the grotto corresponded 
with that outside of it, and the layer containing human bones 
was found at a subsequent time. 

That this grotto was a place of resort at a very early 
period is proven from the numerous remains of the cave- 
bear. This animal was one of the first of those great post- 
tertiary mammalia to become extinct. The exact position of 
the remains of the reindeer is not given. If its bones were 
intermixed with the others and found in the lowest as well as 
the other layers, it would indicate that the climate was not 
very warm during the deposit of the layers, but to have been 
similar to that of Switzerland of the present day. The 
probability is, the reindeer bones did not occur in the lowest 
layer, and hence that layer was formed during the tropical 
climate, and the reindeer bones and human skeletons were 
consigned to the grotto about the close of the inter-glacial, 
or beginning of the reindeer epoch. 

The fossil man of Denise, taken from an old volcanic tuff, 
must be assigned to this period, since there have been found, 
in similar blocks of tuff in the same region, the remains of 
the cave-hyena and hippopotamus major. This fossil man 
consists of a frontal part of the skull, the upper jaw, with 
teeth, belonging to both an adult and young individual ; a 
radius, some lumbar vertebrae, and some metatarsal bones. 



IXTEK-GLAC1AL EPOCH. 75 

The tuff is light and porous, and none of the bones penetrate 
into the more compact rock. 

In the rubbish heap, or reindeer station, at the source of 
the Schusse, there were discovered more than six hundred 
split flints, with a quantity of partly worked antlers and bones 
of the reindeer. The bones were so numerous that Mr. Oscar 
Fraas was enabled to put together a complete skeleton of the 
reindeer which is now preserved in the museum of Stuttgart. 
Most of the bones were split open for the purpose of extract- 
ing the marrow. There were numerous remains of fishes, and 
a fish-hook manufactured from reindeer horn. There were 
also the bones of other animals, such as the glutton, arctic 
fox, and other animals now living in high northern latitudes. 

Speaking of this station, Dr. Buchner says, "Not only the 
careful investigations of the geognostic conditions of the 
place, but also the flora of the time (for remains of mosses 
were found which now live only in the extreme north), leave 
no doubt that the reindeer station on the Schusse belongs to 
the glacial epoch, or that it probably belongs exactly to the 
interval between the two glacial epochs which in all proba- 
bility Switzerland has experienced. Mr. E. Desor declared 
this deposit to be the terminal moraine of the Rhine-glacier, 
which was formerly very large. Moreover, according to him, 
this discovery is particularly remarkable, because it is the 
first example of a station of the reindeer-men in a free and 
open deposit, their remains having hitherto been found only 
in caves."* 

From the remarks of Dr. Buchner, the great number of 
bones of the reindeer, and some show of advancement in the 
arts, it may be safe to conclude that this station belongs to 
the close of the inter-glacial. 

* Buchner, p. 274- 



CHAPTER VII. 

CONDITION OF MAN IX THE INTER-GLACIAL. 

The Inter-Glacial period continued a great length of 
time, covering many thousands of years. 

Man is an improvable being, and some advancement may 
be expected in his condition. His mode of life, and con- 
tinued conflicts with the fierce wild beasts, would tax his 
every device. Necessity compelled him to be inventive. 
The limited, bestial mind which he possessed, could not 
grapple with the higher problems of existence. United 
efforts and fortified places were beyond his thoughts. Those 
old axes of flint were great objects to his mind, and one step 
beyond them was a great stride in progress. That they 
developed but little cannot be wondered at, not only from 
their low type, but also from the knowledge that even in the 
era of history there are nations whose civilization has become 
fixed and stereotyped for ages ; others, who, instead of advan- 
cing, have been retrograding. 

The impulse given by the rigors of glacial times acted 
beneficially throughout this period. The rude axes and 
flints were retained, but improvements were made in utiliz- 
ing the bones and horns of animals. Out of these, bodkins, 
fish-hooks, and arrow-heads were made. The teeth of wild 
animals were perforated, and, along with corals and shells, 
were used for ornaments. The caverns, used as dwelling- 
places, being destitute of water, this necessary of life was 
supplied and carried thither in rude vessels made of clay and 
dried in the sun. The arrows, flint knives, and axes were 
used for killing and skinning the animals, splitting the bones 
containing the marrow, shaping the bone implements, felling 



CONDITION OF MAN IN THE INTER-GLACIAL. 7? 

trees, and stripping the bark, which was used at times for 
clothing, after having been softened by beating. He com- 
menced the art of engraving, as is witnessed by a sketch of 
the great cave-bear wrought on a curious stone found in the 
cave of Massat (Ariege), the bird's head formed from the bone 
of a cave-bear, at Aurignac, and other examples. The lower 
jaw-bones of the cave-bear and cave-lion, in the shape of 
hoes, used for digging roots, were found in the caves" of Lherm 
in and Bouicheta. He made hearth-stones, and on them 
cooked his food. That he paid honors to the dead, and shel- 
tered them from the ravages of beasts of prey, at present, 
must remain an open question. If he did, it might seem to 
imply that he had a religious nature. But when it is consid- 
ered that he was very low in the scale of existence, it may be 
inferred that this was done, if done at all, to propitiate an 
evil genius. Or it may be a faint idea of a ghost state and 
that these feasts were made to dissuade the ghost from 
molesting him. That they had a conception of a Supreme 
Kuler, or a number of gods who ruled for the good of man, 
would be too preposterous to believe. 

Professor Denton has given a description of primeval 
time which, by a little change, would represent inter-glacial 
times: "The seasons are fairly established; and spring 
follows winter,- and fall summer, as now ; though the sum- 
mer is longer and warmer than we are accustomed to see in 
those countries at the present time, and the winters colder. 
The country is covered with dense forests, through which 
ramble mighty elephants in herds, with immense curved 
tusks, coats of long, shaggy hair, and flowing manes. . . 
Shuffling along comes the great cave-bear from his rocky den 
— as large as a horse : fierce, shaggy, conscious of his strength, 
he fears no adversary. Crouched by a bubbling spring lies 
the cave-tiger (Felis spelcea) ; and, as the wild cattle come 
down to drink, he leaps upon the back of one, and a terrible 
combat ensues. It is as large as an elephant, and its horns . 



78 ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 

of enormous size ; and even caye-tigers could not always 
master such cattle as they. 

" Are these the highest forms of life that the country 
contains ? What being is that sitting on yon fallen tree ? 
His long arms are in front of his hairy body, and his 
hands between his knees ; while his long legs are dangling 
down. His complexion is darker than an Indian's ; his 
beard short, and like the hair of his body ; the unkempt hair 
of his head is bushy and thick ; his eyebrows are short and 
crisp ; and with his sloping forehead and brutal counte- 
nance, he seems like the caricature of a man, rather than an 
actual human being. 

" Beneath the shade of a spreading chestnut we may be- 
hold a group — one old man. . . and women and children, 
lounging and lying upon the ground. How dirty ! What 
forbidding countenances ! — more like furies than women. 
One young man, with a stone axe, is separating the bark from 
a neighboring tree. Others, agile as monkeys, are climbing 
the trees, and passing from branch to branch, as they gather 
the wild fruit that abounds on every side. Some are catching 
fish in the shallows of the river, and yell with triumph as 
they hold their captives by the gills, dragging them to the 
shore." * 

They have improved their language, and instead of the 
rude signs and undistinguishable sounds of the glacial, may 
now be heard short, but occasional sentences, which were the 
forerunners of the polished tongues of modern Europe. 

* " Our Planet," p. 266. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

KEINDEEK EPOCH. 

The glaciers, to a limited extent, have again advanced. 
The gigantic animals of the past age have either disappeared 
or are fast becoming extinct. The great cave-bear, cave-lion, 
cave-hyena, mammoth, and woolly-haired rhinoceros have 
almost become extinct. They have given way to a less fierce 
and less gigantic fauna. The advance of the glaciers is 
announced by the numerous herds of reindeer which are 
overrunning the forests of Western Europe, and extending as 
far south as the Pyrenees. In the forests there now existed 
the horse, bison, wild bull (Bos primigenius), musk-ox, elk, 
deer, chamois, ibex, beaver, hamster-rat, lemming, and many 
others. These animals were capable of withstanding and 
flourishing in a rigorous climate. "When the glaciers were 
again broken up and the climate became warmer, the rein- 
deer, musk-ox, elk, chamois, wild-goat, hamster-rat, and 
lemming retired to the high northern latitudes in close prox- 
imity to the snow, or else to the lofty summits of great 
mountain-chains. 

The evidences of the antiquity of the reindeer epoch, and 
that it immediately followed the inter-glacial, are numerous. 
The vast number of the reindeer bones and horns attest to a 
distinct epoch, and by the remains of arctic animals, as well as 
the traces of glaciers, the climate must have been unlike that 
of the present time. The remains of the mammoth, cave- 
bear, and cave-lion, would not only connect this period with 
the inter-glacial, but also prove that a few stragglers continued 
to exist, at least for a short period, after the reindeer epoch 



80 AXTIQUITY OF MAN". 

had begun. That this epoch was earlier than the Swiss lake- 
villages, or Danish shell-mounds, may be shown by the wea- 
pons or implements which point to a more primitive people, 
the absence of the remains of the dog, and, also, by the 
absence of the remains of the reindeer in the shell-mounds. 

There are no means, yet discovered, by which it can be 
told how long this epoch lasted. It lasted a sufficient length 
of time to permit the reindeer to increase greatly its species. 

Evidences of the Existence of Man. — M. Christy and M. 
Lartet examined in conjunction the caves of Central and 
Southern France. Those which have been most carefully 
examined are ten in number, and belong to the Department 
of Dordogne. At Perigord there seems to have been quite a 
settlement, judging by the number of caves and stations, the 
principal ones being Les Eyzies, La Madeleine, Laugerie- 
Haute, and Laugerie-Basse. 

At Les Eyzies there were found a flint bodkin and a bone 
needle used for sewing, a barbed arrow made of reindeer 
horn and still fixed in a bone, a flint whistle made from the 
first joint of the foot of the reindeer, and two slabs of schist, 
on both of which were scratched animal forms, but deficient 
in any special characteristic. 

At La Madeleine there were found a geode very large and 
very thick, which, it is supposed, was used for a cooking 
vessel, as one side of it had been subjected to fire ; an 
engraving of a reindeer on the horn of that animal ; on 
another horn the carved outlines of two fishes, one on either 
side ; a representation of an ibex on the palm of a horn ; on 
another, a very curious group, consisting of an eel, a human 
figure, and two horses' heads. A slab of ivory, broken into 
five pieces, had an outline sketch of the mammoth (Fig. 13). 
This was so accurately drawn that the small eye, curved 
tusks, huge trunk, and the abundant mane, could readily be 
distinguished. There was also found, on an arrow-head, the 
figure of a tadpole. 

There were workshops at Laugerie-Haute and Laugerie- 



REINDEER EPOCK. 



81 



Basse, where weapons and utensils were manufactured ; and 
they are noted for the abundance of instruments made of 
reindeer horn. Among the works of art found at the latter 
station may be mentioned, the stiletto, needle, spoon made in 
the shape of rods tapering off at one end and hollow in the 
middle, staff of authority, whistle, and harpoon, all from the 
horn of the reindeer. On the head of a staff of authority is 
carved a mammoth's head ; there is a representation of the 
hind-quarters of some herbivorous animal, sketched out with 
a bold and practiced touch ; an animal's head, with ears laid 
back, and of considerable length, is carved on a round shaft 
of reindeer horn. It cannot be determined for what purpose 



Fig. 13. 




Sketch of a Mammoth, graven on a Slab of Ivory 
from La Madeleine. 

this shaft was intended, but as the other end was pointed, 
and provided with a lateral hook, it may have been the 
harpoon of some chief. On a slab of slate was drawn, in out- 
line, a reindeer fight. On a fragment of a spear-head there is 
a series of human hands, provided w T ith four fingers only, 
and represented in demi-relief. The delineations of fish arc- 
principally on wands of authority — on one of which is a series 
following one another. 

The cave and rock shelters of Bruniquel (Tarn-et-Garonne) 

have been carefully examined by competent explorers. These 

relics are so numerous that M. de Lastic, the proprietor of 

the cavern, sold to the agent of the British Museum fifteen 

4* 



82 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

hundred specimens, of every description, which had been 
found on his property. In the cave there were found, 
engraved on a bone, a perfectly recognizable horse's head and 
the head of a reindeer, and daggers made of ivory and bone, 
on which were representations of the above-mentioned 
animals. The engravings are mostly on the horn of the rein- 
deer. The cave has also furnished two almost perfect 
human skulls, and two half-jaw bones which resemble the 
Moulin-Quignon. 

The roclc-slielters are overhanging rocks, under the projec- 
tions of which man found a shelter and built his rude 
dwellings of boughs and sticks. In these shelters have been 
found fire-hearths, fish-hooks made of splinters of bone, 
saws made of flint, a complete sketch of the mammoth 
engraved on reindeer horn, the hilt of a dagger carved in the 
shape of a reindeer, the cave-lion, engraved with great clear- 
ness, on a fragment of a staff of authority, and two daggers 
made of ivory. 

In the excavations which were made in the rock-shelters, 
was found a quantity of human bones, including two skulls 
— one of an old man, the other that of an adult. 

The cave of Gourdan (Haute-Garonne) contained the 
largest collection of implements of bone and horn ever dis- 
covered. The stones and reindeer horns are carved with 
great care, and indicate a high degree of artistic taste. There 
are sketches made of the reindeer, stag, chamois, goat, bison, 
horse, wolf, boar, monkey, badger, antelope, fishes, and 
birds, and also the representations of some plants. In the 
lowest layer of the soil the most perfect works occur, and 
they grow less as the surface is approached. Several of those 
implements called "batons of command" occurred, orna- 
mented witli animals' heads. On the rib of a horse was 
carved an antelope, and on the bone of a bird various 
figures — plants, reindeer, and a fish. This cave was made 
the subject of a report by M. Piette before the Paris Anthrop- 
ological Society. 



KEIXDEER EPOCH. 85 

The fossil man of Jlentone, found in a grotto of Mentone, 
a village near Nice, for some time past has produced much 
comment among scientists. The skeleton was discovered in 
undisturbed earth ; at a depth of twenty-one feet. The cause 
of the discussion is that the skeleton is acconrpanied by a 
multiplicity of bone-tools, needles, chisels, a baton of com- 
mand, a necklace, various species of the deer, indicating the 
reindeer epoch, but surrounded also by the remains of the 
cave-bear, cave-hyena, and woolly-haired rhinoceros. Dr. 
Garrigou arrives at the conclusion that this cave was first 
inhabited by men of the preceding epoch, or inter-glacial, 
and during the reindeer epoch was used as a place of burial. * 
The attitude of the skeleton was that of repose (see Fig. 14). 
It was stained by oxide of iron. The tibiae, or shin-bones, 
present a noticeable feature by being more flattened than in 
the European of the present time. 

In the same neighborhood there have more recently been 
discovered, in different caves, four other human skeletons. 
They were all stained with oxide of iron, and two of them 
surrounded with pierced sea-shells, teeth of the stag, consti- 
tuting the remains of necklaces and bracelets. With one 
skeleton, which belonged to a large individual, were dis- 
covered implements of stone and bone, tooth of a cave-bear, 
bones of other animals, and shells of edible marine mollusks. 
The other two skeletons were those of children, and not 
accompanied by either implements or ornaments. 

The other bone caves of France, which have afforded 
much valuable information, and belonging to this epoch, are : 
La Gorge d'Enfer, Liveyre, Pey de l'Aze, Combe-Granal, Le 
Moustier and Badegoule (Dordogne), cave of Bize (Aude), 
cave of La Vache (Ariege), cave of Savigne (Yienne), grottos 
of La Balme and Bethenas, in Dauphine, the settlement of 
Solutre, the cave of Lourdes (Hautes-Pyrenees), and the cave 
of Espalungue (Basses-Pyrenees) — the last two date back to 
the most ancient period of the reindeer epoch. 

* " Science Becord," 1874, p. 499. 



86 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

The principal objects found in these caves and the rock- 
shelters are worked flakes, scrapers, cores, awls, lance-heads, 
cutters, hammers, and mortar-stones. These works, though 
unpolished, are but little ruder than those of the Esquimaux 
or the North American Indian. 

Belgian Caverns. — Under the auspices of the Belgian 
government M. Edward Dupont examined more than tw r enty 
caves on the banks of the Lesse, in the province of Namur. 
Among these were four, in which occurred numerous traces 
of the reindeer-man, namely, Trou du Frontal, Trou Eosette, 
Trou des Nutons, and Trou de Chaleux. 

The cavern Trou de Frontal was a place of burial, and 
similar to the cave of Aurignac. The mouth of the cave was 
closed by a slab of sandstone, and within were the remains of 
fourteen human beings belonging to persons of various ages, 
and some of them to infants scarcely a year old. In front of 
the cave was an esplanade, where were celebrated the funeral 
feasts, and which was marked by hearth-stone, traces of fire, 
flint-knives, bones of animals, shells, etc. The human bones 
were intermixed with a considerable number of the bones of 
the reindeer and other animals, as well as the different kinds 
of implements. Among the remains were two perfect human 
skulls, in a good state of preservation. The bones were dis- 
covered in a state of great confusion, which M. Dupont 
thinks was caused by the disturbance of water. Sir John 
Lubbock regards the disturbance of the bones as due to foxes 
and badgers.* 

Immediately above this cave is the Trou Rosette, in which 
the bones of three persons were found, mingled Avith those of 
the reindeer and beaver. It also contained fragments of a 
blackish kind of pottery, which were hollowed out in rough 
grooves and hardened by fire. Dupont is of opinion that the 
three men were crushed to death by masses of rock at the 
time of the inundation of the valley of the Lesse. 

In the Trou des Nutons, situated one hundred and sixty- 

* {i Pre-Historic Times," p. 315. 



REINDEER EPOCH. 



87 



four feet above the Lesse, were found a great many bones of 
the reindeer, wild bull, and many other species. In the cave, 
indiscriminately mixed up with these bones, were one hundred 
and fifty worked reindeer horns, knuckle-bones of the goat, 
polished on both sides, a whistle made from the tibia of a 
goat, fragments of very coarse pottery, and fire-hearths. 

The caye of Chaleux was buried by a mass of rubbish 
caused by the falling in of the roof, consequently preserving 
all its implements. There were found the split bones of 
mammals and the bones of birds and fishes. There was an 
immense number of objects, chiefly manufactured from rein- 

Fig. 15. 




Earthen Vase, found in the Cave of Furfooz, Belgium:. 

deer horn, such as needles, arrow-heads, daggers, and hooks. 
Besides these, there were ornaments made of shells, pieces of 
slate with engraved figure, mathematical lines, remains of 
very coarse pottery, hearth-stones, ashes, charcoal, and last 
but not least, thirty thousand worked flints mingled with the 
broken bones. In the hearth, placed in the centre of the 
cave, was discovered a stone, with certain but unintelligible 
signs engraved upon it. M. Dupont also found about twenty 
pounds of the bones of the water-rat, either scorchel or 
roasted. 



88 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

In a cave at Furfooz, Dupont found an urn, or specimen 
of rough pottery (Fig. 15) intermingled with human bones. 
It was partly broken ; by the care of M. Hauzeur it has been 
put together again. 

France and Belgium are not alone in their monuments of 
the reindeer epoch, for settlements of this epoch haye been 
discovered in Germany, Switzerland, and Poland. 

In the cave of Thayngen, near Schaifhausen, Switzer- 
land, have been discovered a few remains of the mammoth, 
rhinoceros, and cave-lion ; the remains of two hundred and 
fifty reindeer, four hundred and thirty Alpine hares ; also 
the remains of the brown bear, stag, elk, auroch, glutton, 
wolf, and several kinds of fox. The large bones invariably 
appeared in fragments, and the pebbles used for breaking 
them were found in the refuse. Among birds, the bones of 
the swan, grouse, and duck predominate. The implements 
consisted chiefly of needles, piercers, and arrow-heads made of 
the antlers of the reindeer. The art of engraving and 
carving was carried to quite a degree of perfection. The 
most notable of these objects is the delineation of a reindeer 
in the act of browsing, drawn on a piece of the horn of that 
animal. 

Not far from Cracow (Poland), a cavern has been recently 
discovered and examined by Count Zawisza. In the upper 
part of the floor (four feet in depth), consisting of vegetable 
earth, mould, and debris, occurred ashes, flint implements, 
and the split bones of the cave-bear, reindeer, horse, elk, and 
other animals. Beneath this layer appeared the broken bones 
of the mammoth, an ornament of ivory, and the perforated 
teeth of the cave-bear, stag, elk, wolf, and fox. Two 
thousand flint implements were obtained ; and from the 
frequent occurrence of flint the cave was used by the troglo- 
dytes, or cave-men, as a dwelling ; and by the remains of the 
fauna, it must have been occupied during the inter-glacial, 
and at the beginning of the reindeer epoch. 



CHAPTER IX. 

MAK OF THE REIKDEER EPOCH. 

The Reindeer Epoch, approaching nearer the present age 
than those already enumerated, presents man under a more 
favorable aspect, and affords a better view of his traits of 
character and manner of living. Not only the sturdy cli- 
mate spurs him to action, but a higher type is supplanting 
the original savages. The brachycephalic, or round-headed, 
has penetrated the recesses of that wild country and brought 
with him the art of making more perfect implements. This 
new type was of short stature, having small hands and feet. 
If Asia be the home of man, then from that country, 
advanced in civilization, came the vanguard who were 
destined to supplant their predecessors, tame the wild beasts, 
and conquer the forests. Representatives of this type are 
found in the Lapps and Fins. Between the two existing 
races — dolichocephalic and brachycephalic — there may have 
been a long and bitter strife. The former was large, stout, 
fearless, and cruel ; the latter, small, hardy, and more intel- 
ligent. It was a conflict between brute force and intelli- 
gence. The more perfect weapons must have told fearfully 
against the rude axes and arrows of the dolichocephalic. It 
could not have been a war of extermination, for finally an 
intermixture took place, producing a medium, as may be 
judged from the exhumed skulls. 

Dwellings. — As in the past ages, man continued to dwell, 
for the most part, in caves. If the cave was small, he oc- 
cupied every portion ; but if large, only that part near the 
opening was used. In the centre of this dwelling he made a 



90 ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 

hearth, out of stones sunk in the floor, and with the fire 
placed upon it, he cooked his meals and warmed his body. 
This mode of life did not always satisfy him, for he ventured 
out, and under the projection of an overhanging rock he built 
him a booth, or rude hut, out of boughs, and the poles of 
fallen timber. These dwellings, whether in caves or under 
the rocks, were near some stream. 

Clothing. — The climate being cold, he probably ceased to 
use the inner bark of trees, and depended solely on the skins 
of animals. The skins were prepared by the flint scrapers, 
and then rendered supple by rubbing into them the brains 
and the marrow extracted from the skulls and long bones of 
the reindeer. These garments may have been artistically 
shaped, for they understood the art of sewing. With the 
bodkin they pierced the skin, and with the needle, end was 
held to end and side to side, and the same made permanent 
by the sinew of some animal. 

Food. — These people were essentially hunters, and lived 
principally upon the reindeer, which they attacked with their 
spears and arrows. The horse, elk, ox, ibex, and the 
chamois, formed a considerable part of their food. The meat 
was cooked on the rough hearths, and the skull and the long 
bones w r ere split open in order to extract the brains and 
marrow, which formed a delicious dish. To this they also 
added fish and, occasionally, certain birds, such as the heath- 
cock, swan, and, owl. The chase did not always afford them 
sufficient food, and at times they were forced to subsist on 
the water-rat. 

Enough evidence has been produced to show that these 
people were cannibals. Human finger-joints were discovered 
among the remains of cooking at Solutre in Maconnais. M. 
Issel found, at a point on the road from Genoa to Nice, some 
human bones which had been calcined, and were of a whitish 
color, light, and friable. The incrustations on their surface 
still contained small fragments of carbon, and some of them 
showed notches made by some sharp instrument. In one of 



MAN OF THE REINDEER EPOCH. 91 

the grottos of Northern Italy M. Costa de Beauregard found 
the small shin-bone of a child, which had been carefully 
emptied and cleansed. Professor Owen thinks he can recog- 
nize the trace of human teeth on some human skulls and 
children's bones found in Scotland, and promiscuously mixed 
with sculptured flints and the remains of pottery. 

The Arts. — Man had not yet discovered the value of 
metal, but formed his instruments out of flint, bone, and the 
horn of the reindeer. The hatchet was but little used, and 
the principal weapons were the flint-knife, arrow-heads, and 
occasionally the lower jaw-bone of the cave-bear, with its 
pointed canine tooth. The articles of domestic use were 
rough pottery, knives, scrapers, saws, bodkins, needles, and 
other wrought implements. He had articles for ornamenting 
his person and pleasing his fancy, such as shells for beads, 
and the whistle for delighting his ear. The art of engraving 
was practised to a great extent, and so admirably did he 
execute his designs that, after the lapse of thousands of years, 
the figures are easily recognized. 

The staff of authority would imply that there were 
certain individuals who were recognized as chiefs or leaders. 
Some system must have prevailed, for without it the manu- 
factories at Laugerie-Basse and Laugerie-Haute could not 
have been carried on. In the first of these workshops the 
fabrications were almost wholly spear-heads, and in the second 
reindeer horn was used for the weapons and implements. 

Traffic. — Commerce was begun. The inhabitants of Bel- 
gium sought their flints in that part of France now called 
Champagne. From the same locality they also brought back 
fossil shells, which were strung together and used for neck- 
laces. There can be no doubt of this, as already fifty-four of 
these shells have been found at Chaleux, and they are not 
found naturally anywhere else than in Champagne. 

Burial. — As in the previous epoch, the dead were con- 
signed to the same kind of caves as were used for habitations, 
and the entombment was celebrated by the funeral-feast. 



92 ANTIQUITY OF MAX 

These banquets afford no evidence of worship. Some have 
thought they not only saw signs of worship in the banquets, 
but also in some of the carvings. No idols have been found. 
That they should have no notion of a future state is not 
surprising, for Sir J. Lubbock has shown that there are 
tribes at the present time without this belief.* 

M. Edward Dupont, in his report to the Belgian minister 
of the Interior, on the excavations carried on in the caves, has 
concisely but eloquently given a synopsis of man of the 
reindeer epoch, in the following language : 

"The data obtained from the fossils of Chaleux, together 
with those which have been met with in the caves of Furfooz, 
present us with a striking picture of the primitive ages of 
mankind in Belgium. These ancient tribes, and all their 
customs, after having been buried in oblivion for thousands 
and thousands of years, are again vividly brought before our 
eyes ; and, . . . antiquity lives again in the relics of its 
former existence. 

" We may almost fancy that we can see them in their dark 
and subterranean retreats, crouching round their hearths, 
and skilfully and patiently chipping out their flint instru- 
ments and shaping their reindeer-horn tools, in the midst of all 
the pestilential emanations arising from the various animal re- 
mains which their carelessness has allowed to remain in their 
dwellings. Skins of wild beasts are stripped of their hair, 
and, by the aid of flint needles, are converted into garments. 
In our mind's eye, we may see them engaged in the chase, 
and hunting wild animals — their only weapons being darts 
and spears, the fatal points of which are formed of nothing 
but a splinter of flint. Again, we are present at their feasts, 
in which, during the period when their hunting has been 
fortunate, a horse, a bear, or a reindeer, becomes the more 
noble substitute for the tainted flesh of the rat, their sole 
resource in the time of famine. 

"Now, we see them trafficking with the tribes inhabiting 

* " Origin of Civilization," p, 121. 



MAX OF THE REIXDEER EPOCH. 93 

the region now called France, and procuring the jet and fossil 
shells with which they love to adorn themselves, and the flint 
which is to them so precious a material. On one side they 
are picking up the fluor spar, the color of which is pleasing 
to their eyes ; on the other, they are digging out the great 
slabs of sandstone which are to be placed as hearth-stones 
round their fire. 

"But, alas ! inauspicious days arrive.'' The roof of their 
principal cave falls in, burying their weapons and utensils, 
and forcing them "to fly and take up their abode in another 
spot. The ravages of death break in upon them. . . . 
They bear the corpse into its cavernous sepulchre ; some 
weapons, an amulet, and perhaps an urn, form the whole of 
the funeral furniture. A slab of stone prevents the inroad of 
w T ild beasts. Then begins the funeral banquet, celebrated 
close by the abode of the dead ; a fire is lighted, great ani- 
mals are cut up, and portions of their smoking flesh are 
distributed to each. How strange the ceremonies that must 
then have taken place ! ceremonies like those told us of the 
savages of the Indian and African solitudes. Imagination 
may easily depict the songs, the dances, and the invocations, 
but science is powerless to call them into life. ... 

"But the end of this primitive age is at last come. 
Torrents of water break in upon the country. Its in- 
habitants, driven from their abodes, in vain take refuge on 
the lofty mountain summits. Death at last overtakes them, 
and a dark cavern is the tomb of the wretched beings, who, 

at Furfooz, were witnesses of this immense catastrophe." * 
» 
* Figuier's " Primitive Man," p. 116. 



CHAPTER X. 

NEOLITHIC EPOCH. 

The Neolithic, or Epoch of Tamed Animals, is charac- 
terized by stone implements, polished or made smooth by a 
process of grinding and cutting, the greater development 
attained in the art of pottery, and by the presence of the 
bones of the domesticated animals. This age, in which no 
remains of the reindeer occur, immediately follows the rein- 
deer epoch, and to it are referred in general all discoveries 
made in the so called alluvial soil, the most ancient remains 
of the so called Celts, the shell-heaps of Denmark, the 
tumuli or grave-mounds, the dolmens, the earlier Swiss 
pile-buildings, the Irish lake-dwellings, and some of the eaves 
of France. 

Caverns. — The caves belonging to this period, and ex- 
plored by MM. Garrigou and Filhol, are those of the 
Pyrenees and the caves of Pradiers, Bedeilhac, Labart, Maux, 
Ussat, and Fontanel. Some of these caverns have been used 
in earlier ages, as is shown by the remains of extinct mam- 
mals. The upper crust of the floors of the caves belong to 
this period, and in them are found the bones of the ox, stag, 
sheep, goat, antelope, chamois, wild 4 boar, wolf, dog, fox, 
badger, hare, and horse, intermingled with the remains of 
hearths, also piercers, spear-heads, and arrow-heads, made of 
bone ; hatchets, knives, scrapers made of flints, and various 
other substances, such as silicious schist, quartzite, leptinite, 
and serpentine stone. These implements were carefully 
wrought, and mostly polished. 

The cave of Saint Jean d'Alcas (Aveyron), explored at 



NEOLITHIC EPOCH. 95 

different times by M. Cazalis de Fondace, was used as a 
place of sepulture. It was first examined about twenty-five 
years ago, and at that time five human skulls, in a good state 
of preservation, were found, but have been lost, as their im- 
portance was not then known. Intermingled with these 
bones were flint, jade, and serpentine implements, carved 
bones, remains of rough pottery, stone amulets, and the shells 
of shell-fish, but no remains of funeral banquets. At the 
mouth of the cave w r ere two large flag-stones lying across one 
another. The most recent discoveries in the cave have 
furnished metallic substances, which would place it, as a 
habitation, to the last of the neolithic. 

Danish Kjokken-Moddings, or Shell- Mounds, or kitchen- 
refuse heaps. — The refuse heaps of Denmark were carefully 
examined by Professors Steenstrup, the naturalist, Forcham- 
mer, a geologist, and Worsaae, the archaeologist, commis- 
sioned by the Danish government, their reports being 
presented to the Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen. 

They are found chiefly on the north coast of Denmark, 
and consist of the shells of edible mollusks, such as the oyster, 
cockle, mussel, and periwinkle. These deposits are from 
three to ten feet in thickness, from one hundred to two 
hundred and fifty feet in width, and sometimes as much as 
one thousand feet in length. In them are found weapons 
and other instruments of stone, horn, and bone ; fragments 
of rough pottery, stone-wedges, knives, etc., in great abun- 
dance, accompanied with charcoal and ashes ; no traces of 
coin, bronze, or iron, or domestic animals, except the dog. 
The bones of animals are very numerous, but no human 
bones have ever been discovered. Professor Steenstrup 
estimates that ninety-seven per cent, of the bones belong to 
the stag, the roe-deer, and the wild boar. The other remains 
are those of the urus {Bos primigenius), dog, fox, wolf, mar- 
ten, wild-cat, hedgehog, bear ( Ursus arctos), and the mouse, 
and the bones of birds and fishes. The auroch, musk ox, 
domestic ox, elk, hare, sheep, and domestic hog are absent. 



96 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

The mollusca of these shell-mounds are of a size which 
are never obtained by the representatives of the same species 
now living on the Baltic. They are not more than one-half 
or even one-third the size. At the time of the formation of 
these mounds, the Baltic was a true sea, or an arm of the 
ocean, and these mollusks were taken from it. Now the 
Baltic has not the character of a true sea, but is merely 
brackish, and the oyster does not occur in the Baltic except 
at its entrance into the ocean. 

These deposits have been found several miles inland, 
which would indicate that the sea had once covered the 
intervening space. On the western coast they have not been 
found, in consequence of their having possibly been swept 
away by the encroachments of the sea. They are also found 
on the adjacent islands. 

These mounds are not peculiar alone to Denmark ; for 
they are found in England, Scotland, France, and America. 

Danish Peat Bogs. — The peat bogs of Denmark, so faith- 
fully investigated by Professor Steenstrup, mark three periods 
of deposition. The most ancient is called the Scotch- Fir ; 
the second, immediately above, the Oak, and the uppermost, 
the Beech. The peat is from ten to forty feet in thickness, 
and to form a layer from ten to twenty feet thick would 
require, according to Steenstrup, at least four thousand years, 
and perhaps even from three to four times that period.* 
These three epochs denote three periods of time. The low- 
est belongs to the neolithic, the middle to the bronze, and 
the last to the iron epoch. In the lowest, or Fir period, 
have been found worked flints and bones. Human bones 
have been found, which correspond with the bones taken 
from the tumuli of this epoch. 

The Lake-Divettings of Switzerland. — Dr. Ferdinand 
Keller and his associates have made known to the world the 
w T onderful remains of villages situated in the lakes of Switzer- 
land and other countries. The villages of Switzerland do not 

* Buchner, p. 248. 



XEOLITHIC EPOCIF. 97 

all belong to the same period, and they represent the neo- 
lithic, bronze, and iron epochs ; but there was no hard line 
of demarcation between these three periods. These habita- 
tions are so numerous that more than two hundred settle- 
ments have been discovered in Switzerland alone. Among 
the lakes furnishing these remains may be counted the Lake 
of Neuch&tel (forty-six settlements) ; Lake Constance (thirty- 
two settlements) ; Lake of Geneva (twenty-four settlements) ; 
Lake of Bienne (twenty-one settlements) ; Lake of Morat. 
(sixteen settlements) ; Lake of Zurich (three settlements) ; 
Lake of Pfaeffikon (six settlements) ; Lake of Sempach (six 
settlements) ; Lake of Moosseedorf (two settlements) ; Lake 
of Inkwyl (one settlement) ; Lake of Nussbaumen (one set- 
tlement) ; Lake Greiffensee (one settlement) ; Lake of Zug 
(six settlements) ; Lake of Baldegg (five settlements), and 
others. 

The habitations belonging to the neolithic are Lake Con- 
stance thirty, Neuchatel twelve, Geneva two settlements ; one 
each at Morat, Bienne, Zurick, Pfaeffikon, Inkwyl, Moossee- 
dorf, KTussbaumen, the settlement of Concise, the bridge 
Thiele, the peat-bog of Wauwyl, and others. 

These dwellings were built near the shore, on piles of 
various kinds of wood, sharpened by tools and fire, and 
driven into the mud at the shallow bottom of the lake. In 
some of the settlements the piles were fastened by heaping 
stones around them. The piles were sometimes placed 
together, at others apart. The heads were brought to a level 
and then the platform beams were fastened upon them. 
This basis served for the foundation of the rude rectangular 
huts they erected. These piles are not now seen above the 
water, yet they are visible above the bottom of the lake. 
The number of piles in some of these settlements is as high 
as one hundred thousand, and the area occupied, not less than 
seventy thousand square yards. It has been estimated that 
the population of the Lake-villages during the neolithic was 
pver thirty thousand, 



98 A.NTIQUITy OF MAX. 

The object of these dwellings was to protect the inhabi- 
tants from wild animals, the attacks of enemies, and for tho 
ready obtaining of food by fishing. They were not only 
occupied by the inhabitants, but also by their herds and the 
stores of fodder. * 

Robenliaitsen. — It is not necessary to go into an account 
of a number of these settlements to represent the neolithic 
epoch, for the settlement at Eobenhausen (Lake Pfaeffikon) 
takes the first rank in giving the domestic arrangements of 
the ancient inhabitants. This settlement covered a space of 
nearly three acres, and one hundred thousand piles were used 
in the whole structure. Its form was an irregular quad- 
rangle. It was about two thousand paces from the ancient 
western shore of the lake, and about three thousand from the 
shore in the opposite direction. With the last-named side 
there was a communication by means of a bridge, the piles of 
which are still visible. On this side were the gardens and 
pastures. The dwellers of this settlement were unfortunate, 
as their habitation was twice burned up, and each time, they 
rallied and rebuilt their huts. They remained a long time as 
would seem from the depth of the peat and the vast amount 
of relics found. 

At a depth of eleven feet were found the earliest or most 
ancient relics ; at ten and one-half feet, the remains of the 
first conflagration — charcoal, stone and bone implements, 
pottery, woven cloth, corn, apples, etc. ; at seven and one- 
half feet, flooring, relics of the second settlement, and 
excrement of cows, sheep, and goats ; at six and one half 
feet, remains of second conflagration — charcoal, stone and 
bone implements, pottery, woven cloth, corn, apples, etc. ; at 
three and one-half feet, broken stones, flooring, and relics of 
the third settlement ; at two and one half feet, stone celts, 
pottery, but no traces of fire. Above this was two feet oi 
peat and one-half foot of mould. 

AVithout going into detail, tho objects found in these 

* Buchner, p. 247; "Keller's Lake-Dwellings," p. T8. 



NEOLITHIC EPOCH. 99 

various beds are as follows : Made out of wood, are knives, 
ladles, plates, clubs of ash, in which is fixed a socket of stag's 
horn containing a stone celt, a boat made of a single trunk, 
twelve feet long, two and one-half feet wide, and five inches 
deep, flails for threshing out grain, bows notched at both 
ends, fishing implements, floats for the support of nets, sus- 
pension hooks, tubs, chisels, sandals, yokes made for carrying 
vessels, and a peculiar ornament. These implements were all 
made out of yew, maple, ash, fir, and the root of the hazel 
bush. Out of stag's horn — arrow-heads, daggers, piercing 
and scraping tools, implements for knitting and for agricul- 
ture. The implements of stone were polished, and of the 
usual form. The objects of clay were fragments of pottery, in 
the shape of urns, plates, and cups, in great abundance. 
There were also found spoons, and a perforated cone, sup- 
posed to have been used as a weight for the loom. Several 
crucibles or melting pots have been found, which were used 
for melting copper. The third building of this village was 
on the borderland between the stone and bronze ages. 

The remains of animals found here and at Moosseedorf 
and Wauwyl, all of the neolithic, belong to the brown bear, 
badger, marten, pine-marten, polecat, wolf, fox, wild-cat, 
beaver, elk, urus, bison, stag, roe-deer, wild-boar, marsh-boar ; 
the domestic animals were the boar, horse, ox, goat, sheep, 
and dog. The remains of the domestic hog are absent from 
all the pile works of this period, save the one at Wauwyl. 

Among cereals (Robenhausen) were found several varieties 
of wheat and barley ; fruits and berries — service-tree, dog- 
rose, elder, bilberry, and wayfaring tree ; the nuts — hazel, 
beech, and water-chestnut ; the oil-producing plants — opium, 
or garden poppy, and dogwood ; the fibrous plants — flax ; 
plants used for dying — weld ; forest trees and shrubs — silver 
fir, juniper, yew, ash, and oak ; water and marsh plants- 
lake scirpus, pondweeds, common hornwort, marsh bedstraAV, 
buckbean, yellow waterlily, ivy-leaved crowfoot, and marsh 
pennyw r ort. 



100 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

Besides these there have been found many specimens of 
plaited and woven cloth; also ropes, cords, and a portion of 
a linseed cake.* 

In the different settlements the same axes and knives 
abound, and are of small size. The arrow-heads and saws 
are an improvement on those of the preceding epoch. 
Among domestic implements, spindle-whorls of rude earthen- 
ware were abundant in some of the villages, and corn-crushers 
are occasionally met with from two to three inches in diam- 
eter. About live hundred implements of stone have been 
found at Wauwyl, consisting of axes, small Hint arrow-heads, 
flint-flakes, corn-crushers, rude stones used as hammers, 
whetstones, and sling-stones. 

As these Lake-Dwellings not only belong to the last of 
the neolithic, but extend beyond, they naturally have a place 
in the close of this period. M. Troyon says the dwellings of 
this period came suddenly to an "end by the irruption of a 
people provided with bronze implements. The lake-dwell- 
ings were burned by these new-comers, and the primitive 
inhabitants were slaughtered or driven back into remote 
places. This catastrophe affects chiefly the settlements of 
East Switzerland, which entirely disappeared, and also a 
number of those on the shore of the western lakes. Some f ew 
settlements, however — namely, those of the so-called transi- 
tion period — are said not to have been destroyed by the new 
people till after the inhabitants had begun to make use of 
bronze implements." f 

Dr. Keller takes exception to these views. He says there 
is no sudden leap from one class of civilization to another, 
and that the metals came gradually into use. The lake- 
dwellings were not burned down by the irruption of a foreign 
people ; for at Niederwyl, and several settlements of the 
Unter-See, no traces of lire have been observed. The fact 

* " Lake Dwellings," pp. 37, 324, 350, 360. 
f "Lake-Dwellings," p. 394. 



NEOLITHIC EPOCH. 101 

that but a very few human skeletons have been found in the 
■whole settlements, contradicts the supposition of a battle 
having taken place between the aborigines and the supposed 
conquerors, and of the destruction of the former by the 
latter.* 

Lake-dwellings belonging to this age and the bronze, have 
been found in Bavaria, Northern Italy, Mecklenburg, Pome- 
rania, France, England, Scotland, and Ireland. Herodotus 
says that the Paeonians lived this way in Lake Prasias 
(Thrace), and Lubbock says that the fishermen of Lake 
Prasias still inhabit wooden huts built over the water. The 
town of Tcherkask in Kussia, is constructed over the river 
Don, and Venice itsel fis but a lacustrine city.f 

Several attempts have been made to estimate the time 
which has elapsed since the neolithic period. The estimates 
of M. Morlot are based on the discoveries made in a hillock 
formed by the river Tiniere at its entrance into the lake of 
Geneva. This cone contained three distinct layers of vegeta- 
ble earth placed at different depths between the deposits of 
alluvium. The first was at a depth of three and one-half feet 
from the top, and was from four to six inches thick, and in 
it were found relics of the Eoman period ; the second was 
five and one-fourth feet lower, and six inches thick, in which 
were fragments of bronze ; the third was at a depth of eigh- 
teen feet from the top, and varied in thickness from six to 
seven inches, and contained fragments of the stone age. 
History proves that the layer containing the Eoman relics is 
from thirteen to eighteen centuries old. Since that epoch 
the cone has increased three and one-half feet, and if the 
increase was the same in previous ages, then the bed contain- 
ing the bronze is from twenty-nine hundred to forty-two 
hundred years old, and the lowest layer, belonging to the 
stone age, is from four thousand seven hundred to ten 
thousand years old. 

* "Lake-Dwellings" p< 090. f "Primitive Man/' p. 219. 



102 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

i 

The calculation by M. Gillieron was made from the 
discoveries near the bridge of Thiele. About one thousand 
two hundred and thirty feet from the present shore is the old 
abbey of Saint Jean, built in the year 1100. There is a 
document which seems to show that the abbey was built on 
the edge of the lake. Then, in seven hundred and fifty years 
the lake retired one thousand two hundred and thirty feet. 
The distance of the present shore from the settlement of the 
bridge of Thiele is eleven thousand and seventy-two feet, and 
.consequently the settlement is not less than six thousand 
seven hundred and fifty years old. 

M. Figuier assigns to the lake-dwellings an antiquity of 
from six to seven thousand years before the Christian era.* 

* " Primitive Man," p. 293. 



CHAPTER XL 



MAK OF THE NEOLITHIC. 



FftOM the human bones found in peat-bogs and tumuli, 
man is represented as haying a narrow but round skull, 
with a projecting ridge above the eyebrows, showing he was 
round-headed, his eyebrows overhanging, small of stature 
though stout, and haying a great resemblance to the Lap- 
landers. In many respects the race was much superior to 
that of the preceding epoch. Man advanced rapidly in the 
arts, and made great progress in civilization. He had passed 
out of the barbarous, and might be called a semi-barbarian. 

Habitations. — Man's habitation varied according to the 
locality. In the extreme south of France he continued for a 
considerable length of time to occupy the caves and rock- 
shelters ; in Switzerland, the pile-buildings, and in Denmark 
he undoubtedly had rude huts placed close together and in 
proximity to the shell-heaps. 

Clothing. — Clothing also varied according to locality. 
Where the wild animals were numerous their skins were 
used — there being no incentive to substitute other material. 
Coarse material made of fibrous plants had come into use. 
The lake-dwellers clothed themselves with this material, and 
completely protected their bodies. They also used sandals for 
their feet, as these have been found with the usual indica- 
tions of usage. 

Food. — Where wild animals could be obtained they were 
used, and the marrow of the long bones extracted. To this, 
fish and birds were added. In Denmark the principal food 
was the different species of the edible mollusk. In Switzer- 



104 ANTIQUITY OF MAIS'. 

land a higher order and greater variety of food was used. 
The meat of the wild animals, birds, and fish was varied 
with bread made of barley and wheat, and fruit and berries. 
The meat was not only obtained from the wild animal, but 
they provided against the uncertainty of the chase by domes- 
ticating the boar, ox, sheep, and goat. The horse and dog 
were domesticated to assist in the chase, but sometimes 
served for food, probably during a famine. 

If these people were cannibals, the evidence must rest 
solely on the human bones discovered at a dolmen near the 
village of Hammer, Denmark, which had been subjected to 
the action of fire. They w r ere found together with some flint 
implements. But this evidence is not sufficient to lead to the 
conclusion that at the funeral banquets human flesh was used 
along with the roasted stag. 

Arts and Manufactures. — The flint hatchets of the refuse- 
heaps are generally of an imperfect type ; the long knives 
indicate a considerable amount of skill ; the bodkins, spear- 
heads, and scrapers are but little improved. In the latter 
part of this epoch, the various kinds of implements, especially 
in Switzerland, attained to a surprising degree of perfection, 
in so much so, it is difficult to understand how this was 
achieved without the use of metal. They were made into 
various shapes, and with the design of pleasing the eye. 

Besides the various types of implements common to the 
different countries, the tribes of Denmark manufactured a 
drilled hatchet, which is combined in various ways with the 
hammer. A specimen of this type is represented in Fig. 16, 
now in the Museum of Copenhagen. It is pierced with a 
round hole, in which the handle was fixed. The cutting edge 
describes an arc of a circle, and the other end is wrought 
into sharp angular edges. 

New inventions were brought into use. Among them was 
a comb which, according to shape, might be compared to the 
dung-fork of the American stables. Ornaments for the body, 
made of various materials were fashioned. Pottery was still 



MAX OF THE NEOLITHIC. 105 

in a rough state, though gradually improving. The loom was 
invented, and various kinds of cloth were manufactured. 
Also out of the fibrous plants cordage was made, which again 
was fashioned into nets for fishing. Many canoes at various 
places have been found, showing that they were not only used 
for fishing but also for carrying cargoes. Workshops were 
established, and there the stone implements were made and 
polished ; one of these shops was at Pressigny. 

Some idea may be had of the vast number of stone imple- 
ments which occur, when it is considered that in the Museum 
of Copenhagen there are about twelve thousand, consisting of 
flint axes, wedges, broad, narrow, and hollow chisels ; pon- 
iards, lance-heads, arrow-heads, flint flakes, and half -moon- 

Fig. 16. 




Danish Axe-Hammer, Drilled for Handle. 



shaped implements. In other collections in Denmark there 
are twenty thousand implements. The museum at Stock- 
holm contains about sixteen thousand, and the Royal Irish 
Academy owns seven hundred flint-flakes, five hundred and 
twelve celts, more than four hundred arrow-heads, fifty spear- 
heads, seventy-five scrapers, and numerous other objects of 
stone, such as sling-stones, hammers, whetstones, grain- 
crushers, etc.* Some of these implements, however, may 
belong to other epochs. 

War must have been carried on to a considerable extent, 
as fortified camps have been discovered in Belgium, at Fur- 
fooz, and other j)laces. Their weapons were the axe, the 
arrow, the spear, and possibly the knife. These were wrought 
with great care. 

* " Pre- Historic Times,'* p. 76, 
5* 



106 ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 

Agriculture. — Man commenced to till the ground in this 
age, and thus laid the true foundation of civilization. He 
probably was forced to do it. The beasts of the forest were 
gradually decreasing. They had nourished him in the 
infancy of his mind, and now he should begin to look to the 
soil, and by the cultivation of its products he must sustain his 
life. His principal implement of agriculture must have been 
the sharpened stick, pointed with deer-horn. He cultivated 
the cereals, made his corn-mill, and stored the grain for 
winter use. 

Burial. — How the colonists of the lake-dwellings disposed 
of their dead is unknown. In Denmark, and many other 
places, the dead were buried in dolmens or tumuli. A dol- 
men is a monument consisting of several perpendicular stones 
covered with a great block or slab. When it is surrounded 
by circles of stone it takes the name cromlech. The dolmens 
occur also in Scandinavia, France, and Brittany. They 
were formerly considered to have been Druidical sacrificial 
altars. They were usually covered over with earth, and in 
them were buried from one to twenty persons, accompanied 
with their implements. When a person died, the tomb was 
reopened to receive the new occupant. At such a time fire 
was used for the purpose of purifying the atmosphere of the 
tomb. In Brittany, in the vicinity of the tombs, there 
were set up in the ground enormous blocks of stone, that 
have received the name of menhirs, the most noted of which 
is that at Carnac. When these dolmens remain in the state 
in which they were left, still covered with earth, they take 
the name of tumuli. Comparatively few of the tumuli 
belong to the neolithic. In these, large numbers of bodies 
have been found, and none of them in a natural position, but 
cramped up and their heads resting between the knees. 

Judging from the calcined bones, which are frequently 
met with at the tomb, it may be inferred that victims were 
offered during the funeral ceremonies, perchance a slave, or 
the widow. Lubbock is of opinion that when a woman died 



MAX OF THE NEOLITHIC. 10? 

in giving birth to a child, or even while still suckling it, the 
child was interred alive with her.* 

This hypothesis is substantiated by the great number of 
cases in which the skeleton of a woman and child have been 
found together. In the ceremonies at the tomb, some read 
the belief in a future state of existence. The evidence, how- 
ever, is no clearer than that in the previous epochs. Man 
undoubtedly had such a belief, but science does not reveal it. 

* " Primitive Man/' p. 200. 



CHAPTER XII. 



BR0KZE EPOCH. 



The Age of Bronze bears no direct relation to the anti- 
quity of man, for it is largely embraced in written history. 
Although history does not record the events of the age of 
bronze in Western Europe, yet history covers the time which 
embraces the use of bronze. This epoch has more to do 
with the archaeologist than the geologist. It is marked by the 
abundance of swords, spears, fish-hooks, sickles, knives* 
ornaments, and other articles made of bronze. The bronze 
implements are principally found in England, Scotland, 
Ireland, France, Denmark, Norway, Italy, and Switzerland. 
The lake-settlements of Switzerland known to belong to 
this epoch are : Geneva, ten settlements ; Neuchatel, twenty- 
five settlements ; Bienne, ten settlements ; Morat, three set- 
tlements ; and Sempach, two settlements. To these may be 
added some of the crannoges of Ireland ; also many tumuli 
and mounds. 

Type. — The man of this epoch was not unlike that of the 
preceding. His head was rather broad than long , he was 
small, energetic, and muscular ; his hands were small, as is 
proven by the remarkably small handles of their swords, 
which are too small for a hand of the present day. This 
type of man has maintained itself in the north of Switzer- 
land to the present time. 

Habitations and Food. — The caves and rock-shelters gave 
way entirely to the rude huts which now protected man. If 
they were resorted to, it was only from some peculiar cause or 
danger. The food was the same as in the neolithic, with 
additions to the cereals. 



BKONZE EPOCH. 109 

Clothing. — The skins of animals were used less than 
formerly for clothing. Garments made of other material 
have been found, and even the whole dress of a chief. In a 
tumulus of Jutland there were found a thick woollen cap, a 
coarse woollen cloak (Fig. 17), semicircular in form, scal- 
loped out round the neck, shaggy in the inside, three feet 
four inches long, and w T ide in proportion ; two woollen shawls, 
a woollen shirt, woollen leggings, and the remains of a pair of 
leather boots. Fibrous plants also contributed to the comfort 

Fig. 17. 




Woollen Cloak of the Bronze Epoch, Found in 1861, in 
a TmiuLus in Jutland. 

of man, and were possibly used for summer wear, and under 
garments in winter. 

Implements. — The people of this age made great improve- 
ments in their weapons, tools, and ornaments. They consist 
of bronze celts, swords, hammers, knives, hair-pins, small 
rings, ear-rings, bracelets, fish-hooks, awls, spiral- wires, lance- 
heads, arrow-heads, buttons, needles, various ornaments, 
saws, daggers, sickles, and double-pointed pins. There were 
also ornaments of gold. Only one implement, a winged celt, 
has been found, which bore an inscription 

Arts. — Progress was made in the art of weaving. Solder- 



110 ANTIQUITY OF 31 AX. 

ing and the moulding of metal were practised ; foundries 
were established, the remains of which have been discovered 
at Devaine and Walflinger in Switzerland ; stone moulds 
were used, one of which, on trial, produced a hatchet exactly 
similar to those which have been collected. The moulds 
were usually made out of sand. The crucible used for the 
melting of the metal was made out of pottery which was 
placed over a hole in the earth filled with burning charcoal ; 
when the metal was melted, it was poured into the mould. 
Pottery took new shapes and was adorned with various 
patterns. Glass, which has so long been ascribed to Phoeni- 
cian origin, was invented in the bronze age, for glass beads, 
of a blue or green color, have been found in the tombs of this 
epoch. 

Agriculture. — The cereals attest to the tilling of the soil. 
The ground was prepared by the projecting branch of a stem 
of the tree, used as a plough. The grain was stored for 
winter use, and when required was crushed by being rubbed 
between two stones serving as a mortar. 

Fishing and Navigation. — There are no distinct traces of 
improvement beyond the past epoch, in fishing and naviga- 
tion, unless it be in the improved hooks made of bronze. 

Burial. — The custom of burning the dead was almost 
universal in Denmark, and was more or less practised in 
other countries. The ashes and fragments of the bone were 
collected and placed either in or under an urn. When 
buried, the corpse was usually placed in a contracted position, 
but occasionally extended. With the dead were buried their 
implements and clothing. The body of the chief discovered 
in a tumulus in Jutland, where the clothing was found, 
was buried in a coffin nine and two-third feet long, over two 
feet in breadth, and covered by a movable lid. The body 
was in a good state of preservation, owing to the action on it 
of water strongly impregnated with iron. It was wrapped in 
the woollen cloak, and again wrapped in an ox's hide. 
Buried with it were the shawls, leggings, shirt, boots, and 



BROXZE EPOCH. Ill 

caps, two small boxes, a bronze razor, comb, a bronze sword 
in a wooden sheath, and a long woollen band. In other 
coffins have been found swords, knives, brooches, awls, tweez- 
ers, and buttons, all of bronze. In a baby's coffin was found 
an amber bead, and a small bronze bracelet. 

Religions Belief. — Many crescents, made of stone and 
earthenware, have been found which are regarded, by some 
archaeologists, as religious emblems. Dr. Keller calls them 
"moon images," and has devoted a short chapter to their 
consideration.* On the other hand, Lubbock and Carl Vogt 
regard them as resting-places for the head at night, f They 
carefully arranged their long hair, and evidently sacrificed 
comfort for vanity. They carried a long pin with which to 
scratch the head. This kind of a pillow is still used by the 
Fuegeans and Abyssinians, who have their hair elaborately 
decorated ; and in some cases this is never disturbed. If the 
people were worshippers the crescent is the only evidence 
from archaeology. No idols have ever been discovered. That 
the people were already worshippers may be learned from the 
traditions recorded in history. 

* " Lake Dwellings," p. 319. 

f " Pre-Historic Times," p. 218 ; " Primitive Man," p. 281. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

IKO^" EPOCH. 

As the Iron Epoch fairly establishes civilization, and 
belongs almost wholly to the historical epoch, it will be 
here briefly noticed, and then dismissed after giving a quota- 
tion from Dr. Keller. The bronze had not only prepared the 
w r ay for the iron epoch, but also gave a great impulse to 
succeeding ages. The art of metallurgy assumed a new 
importance and gave new life to every movement that tended 
to the assistance of man. The works of bronze gave way to 




A Knife of the Iron Epoch. 

those of iron. A knife made of iron is represented in Fig. 
18. Knives of this pattern were, however, made of bronze, 
and served for the same purpose. The workshops of this age 
were so numerous that four hundred of them have been dis- 
covered in one province. The potter's wheel was invented ; 
money was introduced, and agriculture greatly flourished. 

Some of the Swiss lake-dwellings of Neuchatel and Bienne 
belong to this epoch. Dr. Keller, in summing up some of his 
observations, has made use of the following language : "The 
phenomenon of the lake-dwellings, so important in the his- 
tory of civilization, the time of their first establishment, their 
original design, their development, and their final extinction, 



IHOX EPOCH. 113 

in spite of many accumulated facts, is in many respects 
clouded in doubt. . . . It is certain from the very begin- 
ning of this peculiar mode of living to the latest period of its 
existence, while outward circumstances remained the same, a 
quiet advance to a better development of the conditions of life 
may be observed, in which there was neither retrogression 
nor any sudden advance by the intervention of foreign 
elements. The general diffusion of metals in a country 
which had none, is explained simply by the barter which 
existed throughout Europe in the very earliest ages. The 
question why the inhabitants of a lake-dwelling of the stone 
age abandoned their settlements, while those of another, not 
many hours' or many minutes' walk distant, remained quietly 
living on their platforms, is of no greater importance than 
the inquiry why, during the middle ages, so many localities 
have disappeared, the names and situations of which are 
known to us. The presence of objects of industry on the 
area of the lake-dwellings has nothing in it very surprising, if 
we consider what misfortunes villages of straw-covered huts 
were exposed to, in which not only the houses themselves, 
but even the platforms on which they stood, were formed of 
very combustible materials. It is possible, if we are to take 
Csesar's account literally, that when the Helvetii, whose 
arrival in the country is neither mentioned in history nor 
shown by archaeology, withdrew, the lake-dwellings then 
existing were, as a whole, burned down ; but there can also be 
no doubt that some remained standing, or were rebuilt after 
the return of the population. Their continuing down to the 
Eoman time is only astonishing to any one who imagines that 
at this time the whole population had gone over to the 
Roman manner of life, while the proof lies before him that 
the lower class adhered to their own manners and customs 
till the entrance of the German races." * 

* " Lake-Dwellings," p. 400. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

TEACES OF MAN IN AMEEICA. 

America furnishes a better field for the antiquary than 
the old world. Her ancient remains are not so much injured 
by the decay of empires and the rude hand of war. Succeed- 
ing ages have not so much effaced these marks, and many of 
the remains still stand as left by the original occupants, save 
only the change and decay which time itself produces. 
America will yet be discovered. It is true the landmarks are 
known ; but these have not been investigated so diligently as 
the remains of man in Europe. The Boucher de Perthes and 
the Dr. Schmerling are yet to come. Until they do, the 
history of primitive man in America must be surrounded 
with great uncertainty. Much labor has been given to the 
investigation of this subject, and many works written, all 
looking toward an early development which must sooner or 
later come. 

In this chapter the aim will only be to point out some of 
these traces. 

Enumeration. — The implements from the gravel beds of 
Colorado and the skull from Calaveras county, California, 
have already been referred to (pp. 61, 62). 

Near Osage Mission, Kansas, there was found a human 
skull imbedded in a solid rock, which was broken open by 
blasting. It was examined, by Dr. Weirley, who compared 
it with a modern skull, and found it resembled the latter in 
general shape, yet it was an inch and a quarter longer. Of 
this relic he says : "It belonged to a man of a large size, and 
was imbedded in conglomerate rock of the tertiary class, 



TRACES OF MAX IN AMERICA. 115 

and found several feet beneath the surface. Parts of the 
frontal, parietal, and occipital bones were carried away by 
the explosion. The piece of rock holding the remains weighs 
some forty or fifty pounds, with many impressions of marine 
shells, and through it runs a vein of quartz, or within the 
cranium crystallized organic matter, and by the aid of a 
microscope presents a beautiful appearance." In shape the 
Neanderthal man comes nearest to it.* 

In the Comstock lode (Nevada), at a depth of five 
hundred feet, Judge A. "W. Baldwin found a human skull of 
unusual and peculiar shape. It is very short from base to 
summit, and exceedingly broad between the ears. The skull 
is entire, with the exception of the facial bones. This skull 
has never been examined by a competent person, f 

In the drift-clay, in the city of Toronto, at a depth of two 
feet from the surface, were discovered the bones and horn of 
a deer, amidst an accumulation of charcoal and ashes, and 
with them a rude stone chisel or hatchet. J 

la the gravel of the gold-bearing quartz of the Grinell 
leads (Kansas), was found an imperfect flint knife at a depth 
of fourteen feet. Above the implement the gravel, composed 
of quartz and reddish clay, was ten feet thick, and above this 
was four feet of rich black soil. This implement was given 
to Dr. Daniel Wilson by Mr. P. A. Scott. § 

Dr. Dickeson found, in the yellow loam of the Mississippi 
at Natchez, a human pelvic bone along with the bones of the 
mastodon and megalonix. They were found at a depth of 
thirty feet from the surface, and the human bone had the 
same black color which characterized the others. Sir 
Charles Lyell calculated that it required sixty-seven thousand 
years to form the delta of the Mississippi, but admits, if the 
conclusions arrived at by the United States engineers be 

* " Science Record," p. 564. 1875. 

f " American Phrenological Journal," February, 1874. 

\ Wilson's " Pre-Historic Man," p. 40. 

§ " Pre-Historic Man," p. 46. 



116 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

correct, in respect to the annual amount of sediment dis- 
charged at the delta, the growth would be reduced to thirty- 
three thousand five hundred years. Taking either of these 
estimates, the same would give the number of years which 
have elapsed since these bones were deposited.* 

In an excavation made near New Orleans, at a depth of 
sixteen feet from the surface, beneath four cypress forests 
superimposed one upon the other, the workmen found a 
complete human skeleton, and some charcoal. The cranium 
is similar to the aboriginal type of the Indian race. This 
discovery furnished the data from which Dr. Bennet Dowler 
assigned to the human race an antiquity, in the delta of the 
Mississippi, of fifty-seven thousand years, f 

Count Pourtalis found some fossil human remains, con- 
sisting of jaws, teeth, and some bones of the foot, in a 
calcareous conglomerate forming a part of the series of reefs 
of Florida. The whole series of reefs is of post- tertiary 
origin, and, according to Professor Agassiz, has been one 
hundred and thirty-five thousand years in forming. If this 
calculation be correct, then these bones must have an 
antiquity of ten thousand years. J 

Dr. Lund, a Danish naturalist, explored eight hundred 
caverns in Brazil, belonging to different epochs, and exhumed 
in them a great number of unknown animal species. In a 
calcareous cave, near the lake of Semidouro, he found the 
bones of not less than thirty persons of different ages, and 
showing a similar state of decomposition to that of the bones 
of animals with which they were associated. From the dis- 
coveries there made, Lund was forced to the conclusion that 
man was cotemporaneous with the megatherium and the 
mylodon — animals belonging to the post-tertiary. § 

* "Antiquity of Man," p. 200; "Principles of Geology," vol. i. 
p. 454. 

f " Antiquity of Man," p. 43 ; " Pre-Historic Man," p. 47. 
% " Antiquity of Man," p. 44. 
§ "Primitive Man," pp. 9,77. 



TRACES OF MAX IX AMERICA. 117 

The sliell-hcaps of America are coeval with those of 
Denmark. Those at Damariscotta, Maine, have been exam- 
ined by Professor W. D. Gunning. He estimates that 
within, an area of one hundred rods in length, eighty in 
width there are piled one hundred million bushels of oyster 
shells. One dome-shaped hillock is nearly one hundred feet 
in height. The only human relics found among the shells 
are stones gouges, arrow-heads, bone needles, pottery, and 
copper knives. These shells were probably deposited by but 
a few individuals at a time. When formed, the oyster was a 
native of that coast, but within the memory of man the 
oyster has not lived there. 

The Mound- Builders, — An ancient and unknown people 
of a certain degree of civilization have left remains of their 
greatness in the fortifications and mounds in the valleys of 
the Mississippi and its tributaries. These works extend over 
a great extent of territory. They are found in Western 
New York, West Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, 
Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, Iowa, Nebraska, 
Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, 
Florida, Texas, and along the Kansas, Platte, and other 
western rivers. 

The people appear to have originated in Mexico : for on 
the southern extremity the works gradually lose their distinc- 
tive character, and pass into the higher developed architecture 
of Mexico ; while at the north, north-east, and north-west, the 
population seem to have been more limited and their works 
less perfectly developed. The people were preeminently 
given to agriculture ; were not Avarlike, and only navigated 
the rivers along their settlements. The fertile valleys of the 
Scioto, two Miamis, Kanawha, White, Wabash, Kentucky, 
Cumberland, and Tennessee rivers were densely populated, 
as indicated by the numerous works which diversify their 
surfaces. 

The stone and bone implements from the mounds, in their 
shape differ but little from those of Europe. The hatchets 



118 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

and knives are not only made of flint but also of obsidian, 
and other hard stones. Copper was the chief metallic 
substance. Out of this they made various implements, and 
swords. It was obtained from the shores of Lake Superior, 
where they carried on extensive mining. In these mines 
have been found their implements, some of which are very 
large diorite hatchets, used as sledges for breaking off lumps 
of copper, and so heavy that it would require more than 
one man to wield them. The copper was not subjected to 
heat, but it was hammered cold into such a shape as was 
desired. 

Some idea of the number of the mounds and fortresses 
may be given from the statement that in the State of Ohio 
alone there are from eleven thousand to twelve thousand of 
these works. The fortresses were used for the protection of 
the people against the predatory warfare of the hostile tribes, 
or even, it may be, against the incursions made by other 
Mound-Builders. In regard to the mounds, there has been 
much speculation, and some archaeologists divide them into 
sacrificial, sepulchral, temple, and symbolical. 

Sacrificial. — The sacrificial mounds are characterized by 
" their almost invariable occurrence within enclosures : their 
regular construction in uniform layers of gravel, earth, and 
sand, disposed alternately in strata conformable to the shape 
of the mound ; and their covering a symmetrical altar of 
burned clay or stone, on which are deposited numerous relics, 
in all instances exhibiting traces, more or less abundant, of 
their having been exposed to the action of fire."* Among 
the most remarkable are those found on the Scioto, at the 
place called Mound City situated on the western bank. 
The mounds are enclosed by a simple embankment, between 
three and four feet high. The area occupied is about thir- 
teen acres, and includes twenty-four mounds. One of these 
is one hundred and forty feet in length, and the greatest 
breadth is sixty feet. In this mound occurred four succes- 

* ' : Pre-Historic Man," p. 236. 



TRACES OF MAX IX AMERICA. 119 

sive altars, a bushel of fragments of spear-heads, over fifty 
quartz arrow-heads, and copper and other relics. The 
sacrificial deposits do not disclose a miscellaneous assemblage 
of relics, for on one altar hundreds of sculptured pipes chiefly 
occur ; on another, pottery, copper ornaments, stone imple- 
ments ; on others, calcined shells, burned bones ; and on 
others, no deposit has been noticed. The sacrificial mounds 
are found at Marietta and other localities. 

All the investigations which have been made prove that 
the altars were not only used for a long period, but also had 
been repeatedly renewed. 

Sepulchral — The sepulchral mounds are numbered by 
the thousands. They are simple earth-pyramids, sometimes 
elliptical or pear-shaped, and vary in height from six to 
eighty feet. Usually they contain but one skeleton, reduced 
almost to ashes, but occasionally in its ordinary condition and 
in a crouching position. By the side of them occur trinkets, 
and, in a few cases, weapons. These mounds were probably 
only raised over the body of a chief or some distinguished 
person. 

Temple, — The temple mounds are truncated pyramids, 
with paths or steps leading to the summit, and sometimes 
with terraces at different heights. Among the most noted of 
these is that of Cahokia in Illinois. It is seven hundred feet 
long at its base, five hundred feet wide, and ninety feet high. 
Its level summit is several acres in extent. 

Symbolical. — The symbolical mounds consist of gigantic 
bas-reliefs formed on the surface of the ground, representing 
men, animals, and inanimate objects. In Wisconsin they 
exist in thousands, and among the devices are man, the lizard, 
turtle, elk, buffalo, bear, fox, otter, raccoon, frog, bird, fish, 
cross, crescent, angle, straight-line, war-club, tobacco-pipe, 
and other familiar implements or weapons. 

In Dane county there is a remarkable group, consisting of 
six quadrupeds, six parallelograms, one circular tumulus, one 
human figure, and a small circle. The quadrupeds are from 



120 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

one hundred to one hundred and twenty feet long, and the 
figure of the man measured one hundred, and twenty-five feet 
in length and nearly one hundred and forty feet from the end 
of one arm to the other. Near the village of Pewaukee, when 
first discovered there were two lizards and seven tortoises. 
One of the latter measured four hundred and seventy feet. 

In Adams county, Ohio, is the figure of a vast serpent ; 
its head occupies the summit of a hill and in its distended 
jaw^s is a part of an oval-shaped mass of earth one hundred and 
sixty feet long, eighty wide, and four feet high. The body 
of the serpent extends round the hill for about eight hundred 
feet, forming graceful coils and undulations. Near Granville, 
Licking county, Ohio, on the summit of a hill two hundred 
feet high, is the representation of an alligator. Its extreme 
length is two hundred and fifty feet, average height four 
feet ; the head, shoulders, and rump are elevated in parts to 
a height of six feet ; the paws are forty feet long, the ends 
being broader than the links, as if the spread of the toes 
were originally indicated. Upon the inner side of the effigy 
is a raised space covered with stones which have been exposed 
to the action of fire ; and from this leading to the top is a 
graded way ten feet in breadth. On examination it was 
discovered that the outline of the figure was composed of 
stones of considerable size, upon which the superstructure had 
been modelled in fine clay. 

Antiquity. — There are no means of determining the 
antiquity of these mounds. Mr. J. D. Baldwin has pointed 
out three facts which go to prove that they belong to a 
distant period. 1. None of these ancient works occur on the 
lowest formed of the river terraces, which mark the sub- 
sidence of the streams. As these works are raised on all the 
others, it follows that the lowest terrace has been formed 
since the works were erected. The streams generally form 
four terraces, and the period marked by the lowest must be 
the longest because the excavating power of such streams 
grows less as the channels grow deeper. 2. The skeletons of 



TRACES OF MAX IX AMERICA. 121 

the Mound-Builders are found in a condition of extreme 
decay. Only one or two skeletons have been recovered in a 
condition suitable for intelligent examination. The circum- 
stances attending their burial were unusually favorable for 
preserving them. The earth around them has invariably 
been found wonderfully compact and dry ; and yet, when 
exhumed, they have been in a decomposed and crumbling 
condition. 3. Their great age is shown by their relation to 
the primeval forests. As the Mound-Builders were a settled 
agricultural people, their enclosures and fields were cleared of 
trees, and remained so until deserted. When discovered by 
the Europeans these enclosures were covered by gigantic 
trees, some of them eight hundred years old. The trees 
which first made their appearance were not the regular forest 
trees. "When the first trees that got possession of the soil had 
died away, they were supplanted, in many cases, by other 
kinds, till at last, after a great number of centuries, that 
remarkable diversity of species characteristic of North Amer- 
ica would be established.* 

Dr. Buchner assigns to them an antiquity of from seven 
thousand to ten thousand years, f 

Fort Shelby, in Orleans county, New York, was carefully 
examined by Frank H. Gushing, the archaeologist. The fort 
was found to be composed of two parallel circular walls, with 
a gateway in each. The gateway in the outer wall fronted 
a peat-bog, the shore of which was some ten feet distant. 
Within the enclosure he found small, flat, notched stones, used 
for sinking fishing-nets. Into the bog he sank a shaft to the 
depth of seven feet, not far from the shore. At the bottom, 
of the shaft he found the shells of living species of shell-fish. 
The natural surroundings show that this fort was built when 
the peat-bog was a lake. This is further confirmed by the 
fact that all ancient w r orks are erected near a permanent 
supply of water. The nearest permanent supply of water is 
Oak Orchard Creek, one and one-half mile distant. The 

* " Ancient America," p. 47. f Buchner. p. 35. 

6 



122 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

formation of this peat would require not less than four 
thousand years, and more probably twice that number. 

The Mound-Builders must have remained a very long 
time. These works were formed gradually, and the popula- 
tion extended slowly toward the North. Their corn-fields/ 
by their raised condition, show many successive years of 



CHAPTER XV. 



written history. 



It is not generally known that written history extends so 
far back as to make worthless the present system of chro- 
nology. The mighty empires of antiquity must have been a 
mystery to many a thoughtful mind. As far back as history 
will carry us we not only behold the world teeming with her 
millions of people, but also nations rising and empires crum- 
bling. Eollin felt the difficulties of the chronology which 
hampered him. He says the Assyrian empire was founded 
by Mmrod eighteen hundred years after the creation of man, 
or two hundred and twenty-four years after the Deluge, or 
one hundred and twenty-six years before the death of Noah. 
Klmrod was succeeded by his son Mnus, who received pow- 
erful succor from the Arabians, and extended his conquests 
from Egypt as far as India and Bactriana. Xinus enlarged 
his capital to sixty miles in circumference, built the walls 
to the height of one hundred feet, and so broad that three 
chariots could go abreast upon them with ease, and fortified 
and adorned them with one thousand five hundred -towers 
two hundred feet high. After he had finished this prodi- 
gious work he led against the Bactrians one million seven 
hundred thousand foot, two hundred thousand horse, besides 
four hundred vessels well equipped and provided. After his 
death, Semiramis, his wife, ascended the throne. She 
enlarged her dominions by the conquest of a great part of 
Ethiopia. Then she led her army of three million foot and 
five hundred thousand horse, besides the camels and chariots 
of war, into India, where she suffered a severe defeat, After 



124 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

making these statements, Eollin says, "I must own I am 
somewhat puzzled with a difficulty which may be raised 
against the extraordinary things related of Ninus and Semir- 
amis, as they do not seem to agree with the times so near the 
Deluge : I mean, such vast armies, such a numerous cavalry, 
so many chariots armed with scythes, and such immense 
treasures of gold and silver ; . . . and the magnificence 
of the buildings, ascribed to them."* The difficulties pre- 
sented to the modern historian never would have occurred if 
discredit had not been thrown on the writings of the 
ancients. 

Egypt, — The only history of Egypt, written in Greek, was 
that of Manetho, a high-priest of Heliopolis, w r ho lived three 
hundred years before Christ. Only fragments of this work 
have been preserved. This history is taken from the ancient 
Egyptian chronicles, and records a list of thirty dynasties 
reigning in one city. His " thirty-one lists contain the 
names of one hundred and thirteen kings, who, according to 
them, reigned in Egypt during the space of four thousand 
four hundred and sixty-five, years.' ? f Dr. Buchner says 
Manetho "calculates for three hundred and seventy-five 
Pharaohs a reigning period of six thousand one hundred and 
seventeen years, which together with the present era, makes 
about eight thousand three hundred and thirty years." J 
Bayard Taylor makes Manetho assign the first dynasty to 
about the year 5000 b. c.§ 

•Herodotus says the Egyptians "declare that from their 
first king (Menes) to this last mentioned monarch (Sethos), 
the priest of Vulcan, was a period of three hundred and forty- 
one generations ; such, at least, they say, was the number both 
of their kings and of their high-priests, during this interval. 
Now three hundred generations of men make ten thousand 

* Eollin, vol. i. p. 138. 

f Anthon's Classical Dictionary, p. 788. 

X Buchner, 254. 

§ " New York Tribune", June 6., 1874. 



WRITTEN HISTORY. 125 

years, three generations filling up the century ; and the 
remaining forty-one generations make thirteen hundred and 
forty years. Thus the whole number of years is eleven 
thousand three hundred and forty/"' The priests "led me 
into the inner sanctuary, which is a spacious chamber, and 
showed me a multitude of colossal statues, in wood, which 
they counted up, and found to amount to the exact number 
they had said ; the custom being for every high-priest during 
his life-time to set up his statue in the temple. As they 
showed me the figures and reckoned them up, they assured 
me that each was the son of the one preceding him ; and 
this they repeated throughout the whole line, beginning with 
the representation of the priest last deceased, and continuing 
till they had completed the series."* From the time of 
Sethos, the priest of Vulcan, to the burning of the temple of 
Delphi, was one hundred and twenty-two years. The temple 
was burned B. c. 548. The period which, then, has elapsed 
from Sethos to the present (1875) is two thousand five 
hundred and forty-five years. Adding this to the time of 
Menes we have the whole period covering thirteen thousand 
eight hundred and eighty-five years. But if the generation 
be reduced to twenty years then the period from Menes 
to the present is nine thousand three hundred and sixty- 
five years. 

The recent explorations made by Mariette among the 
archives of Egypt have comfirmed the testimony of Mane- 
tho. The names of the kings, their order of succession, 
and the length of their reigns correspond with Manetho's 
table. These discoveries not only testify to the great an- 
tiquity of the empire, but also throw light on the nation, 
its manners, and customs. There were found stools, cane- 
bottomed chairs, work-boxes, nets, knives, needles, toilet 
ornaments, earthenware, seeds, eggs, bread, straw baskets, 
a child's plaything, paint boxes, with colors and brushes, 
etc., from three thousand to six thousand years old. There 

* Rawlinson's Herodotus, vol. ii. p. 189. 



126 ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 

were also found the jewels of Queen Aah-hotep, who lived 
1700 B. c, consisting of exquisite chains, diadems, ear- 
rings, and bracelets, which no modern queen would hesi- 
tate to wear. 

These statements are still further confirmed by the tes- 
timony of geology. In the year 1850 borings were com- 
menced in the mud deposit of the Nile. The most important 
results were obtained from an excavation and boring made 
near the base of the pedestal of the statue of Eameses at Mem- 
phis, the middle of whose reign, according to Lepsius, was 1361 
b. c. Assuming with Mr. Horner that the lower part of the 
platform or foundation was fourteen and three-fourths inches 
below the surface of the ground, or alluvial flat, at the time it 
was laid, there had been formed between that period and the 
year A. d. 1850, or during the space of three thousand two 
hundred and eleven years, a deposit of nine feet four inches 
round the pedestal, which gives a mean increase of three and 
one-half inches in a hundred years. It was further ascer- 
tained, by sinking a shaft near the pedestal, and by boring in 
the same place, that below the level of the old plain the 
thickness of old Nile mud resting on desert sand amounted 
to thirty-two feet ; and it was therefore inferred by Mr. 
Horner that the lowest layer (in which a fragment of burned 
brick was found) was more than thirteen thousand years old, 
or was deposited thirteen thousand four hundred and ninety- 
six years before the year 1850."* Other excavations were 
made on a large scale. In the first sixteen or twenty-four feet 
there were dug up jars, vases, pots, a small human figure 
in burnt clay, a copper knife, and other articles entire. 
When the water soaking through from the Nile hindered the 
progress of the workmen, boring was resorted to, and almost 
everywhere, and from all depths, even where they sank sixty 
feet below the surface, pieces of burned brick and pottery 
were extracted, f 

* " Principles of Geology," vol. i. p. 432. 
\ " Antiquity of Man/' p. 36. 



WRITTEN HISTORY. 127 

Troy. — Troy, made immortal by the poem of Homer, has 
recently been uncovered to the eye of man, and fresh lustre has 
been thrown oyer the ancient bard. The descriptions of Troy 
given by Homer, thought to have been a mere work of imagi- 
nation, are now shown to be accurate, and also that he must 
have been there. For the re-discovery and unearthing of Troy 
the world is indebted to Dr. Schlieman. Four buried cities 
superimposed one above the other were discovered. The 
third city, below the surface, is ancient Troy. The house of 
Priam, the Scaean gate, the massive walls and pavements, still 
remained. In the house of Priam Dr. Schlieman found a 
great mass of human bones, among them two entire skeletons 
wearing copper helmets, a silver vase, two diadems of golden 
scales, a golden coronet, fifty-six golden ear-rings, eight 
thousand seven hundred and fifty gold rings, buttons, etc. 
Immediately beside the house of Priam, closely packed in a 
quadrangular space, surrounded with ashes, and near by a 
copper key, were a large oval shield of copper, a copper pot, 
a copper tray, a golden flagon, weighing nearly a pound, 
several silver vases, a silver bowl, fourteen copper lance-heads, 
fourteen copper battle-axes, two large two-edged daggers, a 
part of a sword, and some smaller articles. The value, by 
weight alone, of all the gold and silver found in or near the 
house of Priam, has been estimated at twenty thousand 
dollars. During the excavations, over one hundred thousand 
articles were found. Every mark showed that Troy had 
been suddenly destroyed. Conflagration, ruin, the imple- 
ments and the effects of war were visible. Even the brave 
warriors who fell while defending the palace of their king 
have not yet wholly crumbled into dust. 

The four cities may be thus summed up : The topmost 
stratum is six and one-half feet in depth and covers the 
Grecian settlement which was established about the year 
700 b. c. Beneath the Greek masonry are found the walls 
of another city, built of earth and small stones, but the 



128 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

abundance of wood-ashes shows that the city — or the succes- 
sive cities — was chiefly built of wood. 

The ruins of Troy, next in succession, are from twenty- 
three and one-half to thirty-three and one-half feet from the 
surface, and form a stratum averaging ten feet in thickness. 
Troy is supposed to have been founded about 1400 B. a, 
and its fall and destruction by fire to have occurred about 
1100 b. c. 

Under Troy- there is a fourth stratum of ruins, varying 
from thirteen to twenty feet in depth. The most remarka- 
ble feature of these oldest ruins is the superiority of the terra- 
cotta articles. These vases are of a shining black, red, or 
brown color, with ornamental patterns, first cut into the 
pottery, and then filled with a white substance. The age of 
these ruins " is a matter of pure conjecture, since the vicissi- 
tudes of the city's history — frequent destruction and rebuild- 
ing — would have the same practical effect, or very nearly'so, 
as a long interval of time. We have anywhere from two to 
five thousand years before Christ as the date of the founda- 
tion of the first Troy." * 

Clialdea. — Berosus, a Chaldean priest of Belus, nearly 
three hundred years before Christ, wrote in Greek a regular 
history of Chaldea, in nine books. The materials for this work 
were supplied by the archives then existing in the Temple of 
Belus at Babylon. The work was particularly devoted to a his- 
tory of the kingdom prior to the beginning of the Assyrian 
empire. Fragments of this work have been preserved by 
Josephus and Eusebius. After describing the cyclical ages of 
ten fabulous kings, he then comes to what he considers true 
history, and enumerates one hundred and sixty-three kings 
of Chaldea, who reigned successively from the time when the 
list begins to the rise of the Assyrian empire, about the year 
1237 B. c. Berosus begins with a dynasty of eighty-six kings, 
and gives their names, which are now lost. He had no chro- 

* Bayard Taylor, in "New York Tribune, Extra/' No. 15. 



WIUTTEX HISTORY. 129 

nology of their time, but subjected it to a cyclical calculation. 
His list, which lias so far escaped the lapse of time and the 
change of hands, is thus preserved : 

First, eighty-six Chaldean kings ; history and time 
mythical. 

Second, eight Median kings ; during two hundred and 
twenty-four years. 

Third, eleven kings. 

Fourth, forty-nine Chaldean kings. 

Fifth, nine Arabian kings ; during two hundred and 
forty-five years. 

The rulers of the Assyrian empire were next added, as a 
sixth dynasty. The blank spaces in the list are doubtless 
the result of careless copying, or caused by imperfections in 
the manuscripts. In order to make the old kingdom of 
Chaldea begin about the year 2234 b. c. the first eighty-six 
kings of Berosus have been struck out as fabulous, and the 
Median dynasty regarded as spurious, and this without any 
show of reason, save that it does not agree with the chro- 
nology wdiich the mutilators of history accept. 

Investigations which have been made among the ruined 
cities of Chaldea have given great weight to the authority of 
Berosus, and are tending to the confirmation of his history. 
In Susiana there w r as found a Cushite inscription, mentioned 
by Kawlinson, in which there is a date that goes back nearly to 
the year 3200 B. c. The testimony of the records disentombed 
from the ruins, as well as Berosus, contradicts the prevalent 
hypothesis that the Magian or Aryan race occupied the 
country before the Cushites. These ruins also "confirm 
Berosus by showing that Chaldea was a cultivated and flour- 
ishing nation, governed by kings, long previous to the time 
when the city known to us as Babylon rose to eminence and 
became the seat of empire. During that long time there 
were several great political epochs in the history of the 
country, representing important dynastic changes, and several 
transfers of the seat of government from one city to another. 
6* 



130 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

Such epochs in Chaldean history are indicated by the list of 
Berosus. " * 

By this people, the science of astronomy was well under- 
stood. " Callisthenes, who accompanied Alexander to Baby- 
lon, sent to Aristotle from that capital a series of astronomical 
obseryations which he had found preserved there, extending 
back to a period of one thousand nine hundred and three 
years from Alexander's conquest of the city. . . These ob- 
seryations were recorded in tablets of baked clay. . . They 
must have extended, according to Simplicius, as far back as 
2234 b. c, and w r ould seem to have been commenced and 
carried on for many centuries by the primitive Chaldean 
people." A lens of considerable power, used for either magni- 
fying or condensing the rays of the sun, was found at Baby- 
lon, in a chamber of the ruin called Nimroud.f 

China, — Litse, an eminent Chinese historian, relates that 
there were long periods of time when the Chinese kingdom 
flourished, the chronology of which is not preserved, although 
there is recorded some knowledge of the rulers. One of 
these rulers promoted the study of astronomy. Next come 
the historical epochs. During the first, astronomy, religion, 
and the art of writing were cultivated. This was a great 
epoch, and ruled by fifteen successive kings. In the second 
epoch, agriculture and medical science were promoted. In 
the third, the magnetic needle was discovered, the written 
characters improved, civilized life advanced, and a great 
revolt suppressed. In the fourth and fifth epochs, the 
descendants of the previous ruler reigned. Next came the 
period of Yao and Shin. After this the period of the 
"Imperial Dynasties," which began with the Emperor Yu, 
who lived two thousand two hundred years B. c. The his- 
torical work of Sse-ma-thi-an narrates events chronologically 
from the year 2637 b. c. to 122 b. c.J 

Mexico, — It is known that books or manuscripts were 

* " Pre-Historic Nations," p. 190. f Ibid. pp. 178, 175. 

% "Pre-Historic Nation?/' p. 37. 



WKITTEX HISTORY. 131 

abundant among the ancient Mexicans. There were persons 
duly appointed to keep a chronicle of the passing events. Las 
Casas, who saw the books, says they gave the origin of the 
kingdom as well as the founders of the different cities, and 
every different thing which transpired that was worthy of 
note : such as the history of kings, their modes of election 
and succession ; their labors, actions, wars, memorable deeds, 
good or bad ; the heroes of other days, their triumphs and 
defeats. These chroniclers calculated the days, months, and 
years. Nearly all these books were destroyed at the instiga- 
tion of the monks, and by the more ignorant and fanatical 
Spanish priests. A vast collection of these old writings 
were burned in one conflagration by order of Bishop Zumar- 
raga. A few of the works, however, escaped, but none of the 
great books of annals described by Las Casas.* Thus 
Mexico must be left to the archaeologist unassisted by written 
history. 

* " Ancient America/' p. 187. 



CHAPTER XVI. ' 



LANGUAGE. 



The origin and growth of language evidently afford a 
great field for study, in not only tracing the development of 
civilization, but also in confirming the testimony of the 
ancients and the conclusions of the geologists. If the unity 
of language could not be established, there would still be left 
a field so great as would not lessen the interest or the impor- 
tance of the subject. But a new language cannot be formed. 
For the sake of convenience the many varieties of language 
have been grouped into three great divisions, L e., the Aryan, 
the Semitic, and the Turanian. "The English, together 
with all the Teutonic languages of the Continent, Celtic, 
Slavonic, Greek, Latin with its modern offshoots, such as 
French and Italian, Persian, and Sanskrit, are so many 
varieties of one common type of speech : that Sanskrit, the 
ancient language of the Veda, is no more distinct from the 
Greek of Homer, . . or from the Anglo-Saxon of Alfred, 
than French is from Italian. All these languages together 
form one family, one whole, in which every member shares 
certain features in common with all the rest, and is at the 
same time distinguished from the rest by certain features 
peculiarly its own. The same applies to the Semitic family 
which comprises, as its most important members, the Hebrew 
of the Old Testament, the Arabic of the Koran, and the 
ancient languages on the monuments of Phoenicia and Car- 
thage, of Babylon and Assyria. These languages, again, 
form a compact family, and differ entirely from the other 
family, which we called Aryan or Indo-European, The third 



LANGUAGE. 133 

group of languages, for we can hardly call it a family, com- 
prises most of the remaining languages of Asia, and counts 
among its principal members the Tungusic, Mongolic, 
Turkic, Samoyedic, and Finnic, together with the languages 
of Siam, the Malay Islands, Thibet, and Southern India. 
Lastly, the Chinese language stands by itself as monosyllabic, 
the only remnant of the earliest formation of human speech." * 

Anterior to these three families there was still another 
from which these were derived. It contained the germs of 
all the Turanian, as well as the Aryan and Semitic forms of 
speech. It belongs to that period in the history of man 
when ideas were first clothed in language, and has been 
called the JRhematic Period, f 

As regards the origin of language, three theories have been 
proposed : the Inter jectional, the Imitation, and the Koot. 
The first supposes that the beginnings of human speech were 
the cries and sounds which are uttered wdien a human being 
is affected by fear, pain, or joy. The second supposes " that 
man, being as yet mute, heard the voices of birds, and dogs, 
and cows, the thunder of the clouds, the roaring of the sea, 
the rustling of the forest, the murmurs of the brook, and the 
whisper of the breeze. He tried to imitate these sounds, and 
finding his mimicking cries useful as signs of the objects 
from which they proceeded, he followed up the idea and 
elaborated language." The third theory, advanced by Max 
Muller, is that language followed as the outward sign and 
realization of that inward faculty which is called the faculty 
of abstraction, and the roots, to which language may be 
reduced, express a general, not an individual idea. J 

There is more or less truth in all these theories. At 
the very earliest period man must have possessed some 
method of communicating his wants or ideas. The casual 
observer has noticed that animals have methods of communi- 

* " Chips from a German Workshop," vol. i. p. 21. 

f Ibid. vol. ii. p. 8. 

X Wake's " Chapters on Man," p. 83. 



134 AXTIQUITY OF MAX. 

eating with one another. It is not improbable that at the 
very earliest period man's only mode was that of cries and 
signs. This may have lasted for a very long time. Then the 
mimicking commenced. Next, comparison was resorted to 
when he had so far advanced as to describe his thoughts ; 
and, finally, from these various beginnings, from necessary 
or forced improvement, his ideas were expressed in root 
words. * 

Instead of new languages originating, old languages 
change. They are mutable, and from them new dialects are 
produced. In the history of man there never has been a 
new language, and the languages now spoken are but the 
modifications of old ones. The words now used by all people, 
however broken up, crushed, or put together, are the same 
materials as were used in the beginnings of speech. JSTew 
words are but old words ; old in their material elements, 
though they may be renewed and dressed in various forms. 
"The modifiability of the language and its tendency to vary 
never cease, so that it would readily run into new dialects and 
modes of pronunciation if there were no communication with 
the mother country direct or indirect. In this respect its 
mutability will resemble that of species, and it can no more 
spring up independently in separate districts than species 
can, assuming that these last are all of derivative origin." f 

* Diodorus Siculus, Lucretius, Horace, and many other Greek and 
Roman writers, consider language as one of the arts invented by man. 
The first men, say they, lived for some time in woods and caves, after 
the manner of beasts, uttering only confused and indistinct noises, till, 
associating for mutual assistance, they came by degrees to use articu- 
late sounds mutually agreed upon, for the arbitrary signs or marks of 
those ideas in the mind of the speaker which he wanted to communi- 
cate to the hearer. This opinion sprung from the atomic cosmogony 
which was framed by Mochus, the Phoenician, and afterward im- 
proved by Democritus and Epicurus." — Pouchet's Plurality of the 
Human Race, p. 142. 

f " Principles of Geology/' vol. ii. p. 475. " It is generally acknowl- 
edged that all organic beings have been formed on two great laws — 
Unity of Type, and the Conditions of Existence. By unity of type is 



LANGUAGE. 135 

There are from four thousand to six thousand living lan- 
guages. The number of unspoken languages is not known. 
Their growth has required ages, and during their develop- 
ment many a parent stalk has ceased to exist. The changes 
in a language are slowly produced. It requires centuries to 
so far leave a language as to need an interpreter in order to 
understand it. Some idea of this slow change may be 
gained by comparing the writings in the English language of 
different periods. In the year 1362 appeared a poem called 
" Piers Ploughman's Creed/' which begins as follows : 

" In a summer season, 
When soft was the sun, 
I shoop me into shrowds * 
As I a sheep f were ; 
In habit as an hermit 
Unholy of werkes, 
Went wide in this world 
Wonders to hear ; 
Ac:£ on a May niorwening 
On Malvern hills 
Me hefel a ferl v,§ 
Of fairy me thought." Etc. 

Written language is more permanent than spoken, but the 
process of either is necessarily slow. When it is remembered 
that a language has been derived successively through 
numerous others, no special limit or time can be given, 
although a very long period would be required. The usually 
accepted chronology would not allow sufficient time for the 
diversity in the Semitic family, to say nothing of the time 
required for the development of the three general classes. 

meant that fundamental agreement in structure which we see in organic 
beings of the same class, and which is quite independent of their 
habits of life. On my theory, unity of type is explained by unity of 
descent.'' — Darwin's Origin of Species, p. 200. 

* I put myself into clothes. f Shepherd. \ And. § Wonder. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

UNITY OF THE HUMAN KACE. 

The theory of the unity of the human race has caused a 
clash of opinions among men of science. It has been the 
great battle field among anthropologists, ethnologists, geolo- 
gists, philologists, and theologists. Men of acknowledged 
ability have been arrayed on either side. Among the fore- 
most in f avoi v of a diversity of origin have been Agassiz, Sir 
Roderick I. Murchison, Georges Pouchet, A. R. Wallace, and 
Schleicher. But the weight of evidence and authority is 
most in favor of the unity of the human race. 

The advocates of the theory of the diversity of the origin 
of the human race have advanced many objections against 
the unity, and produced arguments in favor of their opinions. 
These may be summed up under five heads. 1. The anato- 
mical differences between the different races, and especially 
those which distinguish the black and white. 2. The separa- 
tion of the races from each other for unknown ages by great 
oceans, and by formidable and almost impassable continental 
barriers. 3. The disparity in intelligence, and the grades in 
civilization. 4. A medium type cannot exist by itself, 
except on the condition of being supported by the two 
creating types. 5. "When two types become united, two 
phenomena may arise : a, Either one of them will absorb the 
other ; or b, They may subsist simultaneously in the midst 
of a greater or less number of hybrids. 

The following answers may be given to these objections, 
or arguments : 1. It is just as reasonable to suppose that 
man is affected, as well as the animals, by climate, food, or 



UXITY OF THE HUMAN RACE. 137 

peculiar condition. It is well known that animals have 
undergone more or less change by their situation or position. 
Elephants and rhinoceroses are almost hairless. As certain 
extinct species, which formerly lived under an arctic climate, 
were covered with hair or long wool, it would appear that 
the present species of both genera had lost their hairy 
covering by exposure to heat. This is confirmed by the fact 
that the elephants of the elevated and cool districts of India 
are more hairy than those on the lowdands.* A wonderful 
change is wrought by the influence of climate on turkeys. 
In India "it is much degenerated in size, utterly incapable of 
rising on the wing, of a black color, and with long pendulous 
appendages over the beak, enormously developed." "In the 
English climate an individual Porto Santo rabbit recovered 
the proper color of its fur in less than four years." f Ob- 
servers are convinced that a damp climate affects the growth 
of the hair of cattle. The mountain-breeds always differ 
from the lowland breeds ; in a mountainous country the 
hind limbs would be affected from exercising them more, 
which would also affect the pelvis, and, then, from the law 
of homologous variation, the front limbs and head would 
probably be affected. J One of the most marked distinctions 
in the races of man is that the skull in some is elongated or 
dolichocephalic, and in others rounded or brachycephalic. 
Mr. Darwin has observed that a change takes place in the 
skulls of domestic rabbits; they become elongated, while 
those of the wild rabbit are rounded. He took two skulls of 
nearly equal breadth, the one from a wild and the other 
from a large domestic rabbit, the former was only 3.15, and 
the latter 4.3 inches in length. "Welcker has observed "that 
short men incline more to brachycephaly and tall men to 
dolichocephaly ; and tall men may be compared w T ith the 
larger and longer-bodied rabbits, all of which have elon- 

* " Descent of Man," vol. i. p. 143. 

\ Mivart's " Genesis of Species," p. 114. 

t " Origin of Species," p. 193. 



138 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

gated skulls."* The argument from language is of great 
weight, especially in considering the differences in color. 
Professor Max Miiller has stated this clearly : " There was a 
time when the ancestors of the Celts, the Germans, the Sla- 
vonians, the Greeks and Italians, the Persians and Hindus, 
were living together beneath the same roof. v "The evi- 
dence of language is irrefragable, and it is the only evidence* 
worth listening to with regard to ante-historical periods. It 
would have been next to impossible to discover any traces oi 
relationship between the swarthy natives of India and their 
conquerors, whether Alexander or Clive, but for the testi- 
mony borne by language." f When the great lapse of ages is 
taken into consideration, since man originated, it will be 
seen that sufficient time is given to produce the white, black, 
yellow, red, and brown varieties of man. 

2. The argument from geographical distribution would 
hardly seem valid, as it is known that the ocean can be and 
has been navigated by frail crafts. Lieutenant Bligh, of the 
ship Bounty, in a small boat, twenty-three feet long from stem 
to stern, deep laden with nineteen men and one hundred and 
fifty pounds of bread, twenty-eight gallons of water, twenty 
pounds of pork, etc., started from the island of Tofoa (South 
Pacific) for the island of Timor, a distance of three thousand 
six hundred miles. In this voyage he encountered a boister- 
ous sea, and great perils, but finally reached his destination. J 
When men began to dwell on the sea-coast they made their 
small vessels and carried on a limited navigation. Many a 
frail craft has been driven out to sea with its human freight, 
some of which landed on uninhabited islands. This has often 
happened among the South Sea islanders. § If it had been 

* " Descent of Man," vol. i. p. 142. 

f » Chips," vol. i. pp. G3, 6% 

% Lady Belcher's " Mutineers of the Bounty," p. 61. 

§ " Captain Cook found on the island of Wateoo, three inhabitants 
of Otaheite, who had been drifted thither in a canoe, although the dis- 
tance between the two isles is five hundred and fifty miles. In 1G9G, 



UXITY OF THE HUMAN EACE. 139 

asserted, a few years ago, that man's distribution might have 
been partly caused by the agency of ice, it would have 
received no attention. And yet, Captain Tyson and his 
party, consisting of twelve men, two women, and five chil- 
dren, being a portion of the crew of the ill-fated Polaris, 
drifted about from the 15th of October, 1872, to the 30th of 
April, 1873, on an ice-floe, and in the midst of an arctic 
winter. Besides the provisions saved from the Polaris they 
subsisted on the flesh of seals, birds, and bears that they 
were able to kill. Every member of this party was rescued 
off the coast of Labrador. It must be further noticed that 
the surface of the earth was not always the same. The 
continents have changed more or less, and during these 
changes man must have become more or less separated. 

3. In respect to the disparity it may be replied that the 
two extreme points are observable in all the nations of the 
earth. Even in single families there have been those who 
were highly cultured and refined, while other members have 
been very low in organization, habits, and tastes. In these 
days it is manifest that all the races are capable of a very 
high degree of improvement. On the other hand, nations 
have retrograded. The ignorant, wretched nomads who 
pitch their tents amid the ruins of Babylon, are the descend- 
ants of the ancient mixed races who successively occupied 

two canoes, containing thirty persons, who had left Ancorso, were 
thrown by contrary winds and storms on the island of Samar, one 
of Philippines, at a distance of eight hundred miles. In 1721, two 
canoes, one of which contained twenty-four, and the other six persons, 
men, women, and children, were drifted from an island called Far- 
roilep to the island of Guaham, one of the Marians, a distance of two 
hundred miles." Kadu, a native of Ulea, and three of his country- 
men, while sailing in a boat, were driven out to sea by a violent storm, 
and drifted about the sea for eight months, subsisting entirely on 
the produce of the sea, and finally were picked up in an insensible 
condition by the inhabitants of Aur (Caroline Isles) one thousand 
five hundred miles distant from his native isle. — Principles of Geology, 
vol. ii. p. 472. 



140 ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 

Mesopotamia : the Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes, and Per- 
sians, who were ruled by such renowned monarchs as 
Shalmaneser, Nebuchadnezzar, Cyrus, and others. The wild 
marauding Arabs are tiie descendants of a people who 
invented algebra and introduced the numerals. So the list 
might be extended. 

4 and 5. The fourth and "fifth amount to the assumption 
that no race will amalgamate with another. The statements 
embraced under these two heads are not warranted by facts. 
Dr. Prichard says, " Mankind of all races and varieties are 
equally capable of propagating their offspring by intermar- 
riages, and that such connections are equally prolific whether 
contracted between individuals of the same or of the most 
dissimilar varieties. If there is any difference, it is probably 
in favor of the latter. " * He then gives a short account of 
several examples of new or intermediate stocks which have 
been produced and multiplied. They are Griquas, descended 
from the Dutch and Hottentots, who occupy the banks of 
the Orange Eiver, and number five thousand souls ; the 
Cafusos of Brazil, a mixture of native Americans and African 
Negroes ; the Papuas of the island of New Guinea, a mix- 
ture between the Malays and Negroes. One of the best 
examples yet furnished is that of the Pitcairn Islanders. 
This colony originated in this way : The British government 
had sent a vessel, called the Bounty, commanded by Lieu- 
tenant Bligh, to gather bread-fruit trees at Otaheite and 
introduce them into the West Indies. Bligh was an over- 
bearing, tyrannical, and cruel officer. Driven to fury, and 
out of patience with the superior officer, Mr. Fletcher Chris- 
tian and others mutinied, and turned Bligh and his eighteen 
companions adrift. The mutineers proceeded to Tahiti ; here 
they took on board provisions and live stock, nine Tahiti an 
men, twelve women, and eight boys who had secreted them- 
selves, and then proceeded to Toubouai, where they founded a 
settlement. Owing to dissensions the colony broke up and 

* <l Natural History of Man," vol. i. p. 1G. 



UXITY OF THE HUMAN RACE. 141 

removed to Tahiti. But Mr. Christian, with eight other of 
the mutineers, three Toubouaians, three Tahitian men with 
their wives, and one child, and nine other women, left in the 
Bounty and landed at Pitcairn's Island, and there burned the 
Bounty on the 23d of January, 1790. In less than nine 
years afterward, owing to strifes, the men were reduced to 
two in number, both whites, and one of them died the suc- 
ceeding year. In the year 1808 the American ship Topaz 
touched at the island. The colonists then numbered thirty- 
five. In 185G they had increased to the number of one 
hundred and ninety, and as the produce of the island was 
barely sufficient to support them they were removed by the 
British government to ^Norfolk Island. There are only 
eight surnames among them — five of the Bounty stock and 
three new-comers. They are a fine, healthy race of people ; 
the men of a bright copper color, but the women are scarcely 
distinguishable from English women. If reports be true 
concerning them, they are the most remarkable people on 
earth. They never allow the sun to go down on their wrath, 
and are noted for their honesty, truth, chastity, industry, 
benevolence, reverence, simplicity, and all the virtues which 
combine to form true religion. 

The law of hybridity, which has been so strongly urged 
against the unity of the race, has proved an argument in 
favor. The offspring of birds as much alike as the domestic 
goose and the large Muscovy duck will not propagate their 
species. Mules cannot perpetuate their kind. The dif- 
ferent varieties of the horse, such as the little black Shetland 
pony and the tall white Arabian, will not only breed together 
but these hybrids will continue to perpetuate their kind, 
thereby proving their identity of species. The same may be 
said of the cross between the most perfect and the lowest 
type of mankind. If some of these mixtures die out in a few 
generations, it is not owing to their hybridity, but to the plain 
violation of natural laws. When the contracting parties to 
a marriage are of the same constitution, there will be no 



142 ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

issue; if the constitutions, or rather, temperaments, are in 
substance too nearly the same, the issue, if any, will be either 
still-born, or die very soon after birth ; if the contracting 
parties shall have an adjunctive element, the issue will be 
short-lived, although they may arrive at the years of ma- 
turity.* These laws apply to both the mixed and the un- 
mixed types of mankind. 

The close affinity of all the races, their subjection to the 
same general laws, their capacity for mental and moral 
improvement, and the virtual unity of their languages lead 
to the conclusion that one birth-place was common to 
all. If that place be Central Asia, or any other locality, it 
must have been long before traditional times, when the one 
tribe was broken up and nations formed. 

Eaces change so slow that they seem to be stationary, 
On the ancient Egyptian monuments are representations of 
the Negro, having exactly the same features which charac- 
terize that race at the present time ; and some of these paint- 
ings date as far back as 2000 B. c. 

Then from the unity of the race and the persistency in 
type, an almost incredible length of time must be assigned to 
permit of the great disparity as exhibited by the different 
types of mankind. 

* Powell's "Human Temperaments," p. 180. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

THE BIBLE AXD SCIEXCE. 

No book has caused so much controversy as the Bible. 
It has been made to answer for the folly of both its friends 
and foes. The fierce assaults made by the sceptic have been 
the legitimate result of the preposterous claims made by 
its ignorant but too zealous friends. The Bible makes no 
such claims for itself as have often been made for it. Its 
meaning has been perverted, sentences distorted, and words 
changed in order to suit the caprice of its advocates. If it 
were a living, speaking existence, it would certainly beg to be 
delivered from its friends. It has been made to conflict with 
the investigations of science, and those engaged in interpre- 
ting the laws of nature have been branded as infidels, 
although they may have devout and reverent spirits. The 
Bible is not and makes no pretensions of being a book of 
science. It is designed to be a book of religion, and a history 
of the ancient Jews, and its references to scientific questions 
are only incidental. If the references to science, or the 
account of Creation be radically wrong, its teachings on 
questions of morals and religion would not be thereby invali- 
dated. The Christian, or the Jew, has nothing to fear from 
the results of scientific investigation. But there is a duty 
devolving on him, and that is to leave his fanciful interpre- 
tations and come to the true meaning of the Scriptures, and 
there learn how the words were understood by those to whom 
they were originally addressed. The meaning of words, as 
used in the nineteenth century, is not to be connected with 
their signification as used in the past. There is a great 



Hi ANTIQUITY OF MAX. 

distance that divides the present from the times of the 
Hebrews, and their language and thoughts from the English 
language and modern thought. The ancient Hebrews were 
not given to scientific pursuits, and could have been but 
comparatively little advanced in civilization. 

It is not the design here to enter upon an investigation of 
the points raised between the Scriptures and science, but to 
confine the inquiry to such questions as the previous chapters 
have demanded. 

Creation. — The first and second chapters of Genesis not 
only teach that God is the Creator of heaven and earth, but 
also the order of succession is given. It is not stated that 
the world was created out of nothing. The word "bara," 
translated "created," has a variety of meanings. According 
to Gesenius it means to cut, to cut out, to carve, to form, to 
create, to produce, to beget, to firing forth, to feed, to eat, to 
grotv fat, to fashion, to make* The idea presented seems to 
be this : The author asserts that heaven and earth owe their 
origin to God. Then he goes back and exj^lains the succes- 
sive stages of creation. At the commencement of the work 
the earth was formless and void, or in a nebulous condition, 
and from this preexisting mass the worlds were evolved. 
When this mass was created, if ever, the author of Genesis 
does not state. 

Six periods, or " days," are given for the formation of the 
earth. The use of the words "evening and morning" natu- 
rally leads to the conclusion that the days were each twenty- 
four hours in length. But doubt is thrown over this 
conclusion by the use of the word day in the second chapter 



* The idea that " bara " meant to create out of nothing is a modern 
invention, and most likely called forth by the contact between Jews 
and Greeks at Alexandria.- The Greeks believed that matter was 
co- eternal with the Creator, and it was probably in contradistinction to 
this notion that the Jews first asserted that God made all things out of 
nothing. The word, however, only calls forth the simple conception 
of fashioning or arranging. — Chips, vol. i. p. 132. 



THE BIBLE AND SCIENCE. 145 

and fourth verse, where the whole creative week is called 
a day. The word translated "day" also means time, but it 
is. to be generally taken in the sense of the civil day — from 
sun up to sun down. Hugh Miller held to the opinion that 
the creation was represented to Moses in a vision. The 
periods passed before his mind in succession and had the 
appearance of days. The evening was the closing of one and 
the morning was the beginning of another period of time.* 
If a description of the different orders of life had been given, 
it would have been beyond the comprehension of that primi- 
tive people. It was not the design to teach geology. The 
people were not prepared for such scientific knowledge. But 
the simple statement that God is the author of all things, 
could be and was understood by the Israelites. 

On the sixth day man appears ; but there are two records, 
and in them he is presented in different ways and for differ- 
ent purposes. In the first account man is made in the image 
of God, and to him is given dominion over the living things, 
and he is commanded to subdue the earth. The second 
account states that there was no man to till the ground, and 
the Lord formed man of the dust of the ground, and 
breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man 
became a living soul. The second account cannot be, as 
has been assumed, a repetition of the first. The two 
accounts are radically different. One account makes man to 
have dominion over the beasts, birds, and fishes ; the other, 
to till or cultivate the soil. This agrees with archaeo-geology. 
Men were hunters many ages before they were agriculturists. 
The one account has man made in the image of God, the 
other, & living soul The "image of God" and "living soul" 
may be the same, but why the change ? There may be a 
cause for it. If the theory of the vision be the true one, 
then Moses saw man in two capacities, differing one from the 
other. Man may be in the "image of God," and yet in a 
low, savage condition — subsisting on the chase. Man may 

* " Testimony of the Rocks/' Fifth. Lecture. 

7 



14:6 ANTIQUITY OF MAN". 

be awakened from that condition, the u image of God" may 
assert its majesty, and make man a religious, worshipful 
being.* That there were two classes the record implies. 
Cain goes out into the Land of Nod, where his wife 
conceives, and he builds a city. Where did Cain get his 
wife, and why did he build a city ? No account is given of 
the birth of his wife, but the natural inference is he obtained 
her in the Land of Nod.f It has been contended that Cain 
married his sister. If this be true it would certainly have 
been mentioned. It is too important a matter to have 
escaped notice. If he married his sister he was guilty of a 
heinous crime. If it was right then, it is right now. The 
city he built must have been more than an encampment, or a 
small fortification. (The word translated "city" bears this 
meaning also.) It would have been of no moment. It must 
have been a place of some consequence, and designed for 
more persons than Cain, his wife, and son. Taking all the 
circumstances together, including Cain's dread "of every one 
that findeth me shall slay me," it would seem that the object 
of this city was to provide for individuals pf the 23re-Adamic 
family dwelling on the east of Eden, and possibly to ingrati- 
ate himself into their favor. 

Then, again, in the sixth chapter, " The sons of God saw 
the daughters of men that they were fair ; and they took 
them wives of all which they chose." This was followed by 
great wickedness, in consequence of which the world was 
destroyed by a flood. -Who were the "sons of God," and 
who the "daughters of men"? Why not the daughters of 

* Rev. Dr. J. P. Thompson represents Adam as a typical man (Man 
in Genesis and Geology, p. 103 ) ; Lubbock regards him as a typical 
savage (Origin Civilization, p. 361). Why not call him the first great 
prototype of the h unian race ? 

f The word Nod means to icander, to be driven about, etc. It 
appears to have been a familiar name at the time of the fratricide. It 
was then the name of a land or tract of country. May there not have 
been roving tribes there, and from them the place was designated 
" Wandering Land " ? 



THE BIBLE AND SCIENCE. 147 

God ? The " sons of God " must have been the lineal de- 
scendants of Adam, and the "daughters of men" the off- 
spring of the pre-Adamic race. The mongrel race produced 
were monsters,* and their minds were bent continually on 
doing evil. These sons of Adam must have retrograded, or 
else they would not have sought wives from among a lower 
people. By the laws of nature their offspring was lower 
than either of the races, from the fact that to the brutish 
natures of the pre-Adamic type would be added the natural 
wisdom of the Adamic, thus producing cunning and craft in 
their wickedness, f If stringent moral laws had been 
enforced upon them the result would have been reversed. 

* Dr. Livingstone, after speaking of a half-caste man on the Zam- 
besi, described by the Portuguese as a rare monster of humanity, 
" remarks, ' It is unaccountable why half-castes, such as he, are so 
much more cruel than the Portuguese, but such is undoubtedly the 
case,' An inhabitant remarked to Livingstone, ' God made white men, 
and God made black men, but the devil made half-castes.' When two 
races, both low in the scale, are crossed, the progeny seem to be emi- 
nently bad. Thus the noble-hearted Humboldt speaks in strong terms 
of the bad and savage disposition of Zambos, or half-castes between 
Indians and Negroes ; and this conclusion has been arrived at by 
various observers. From these facts we may perhaps infer that the 
degraded state of so many half-castes is in part due to reversion to a 
primitive and savage condition, as well as to the unfavorable moral 
conditions under which they generally exist." — Animals and Plants 
under Domestication, vol. ii. p. 63. 

f This view does not conflict with the doctrine of the unity of the 
race. The great difficulty in interpreting the Scriptures is its brief- 
ness. A long period of time is comprehended in a very few words, 
and much is left to inference. The tenor of the Scriptures favors the 
idea of the unity of the race, still it is not specifically declared. The 
strongest passage is Acts chapter 17 and verse 28 : " Hath made of one 
blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth." 
This does not conflict with the idea of there being more than one pair, 
but their blood is the same. It is not declared that Adam had no an- 
cestors. When it is declared that Adam was the son of God, it is only 
to trace man's origin to the Supreme Being. If Adam had ancestors, 
the leaving of them out has no signification, as it was not uncommon 



148 ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 

Chronology. — The chronology given in the margins of the 
Bible is a mere invention, and has worked much mischiei. 
There is nothing to warrant it, and no excuse can be made 
for it. The Bible gives no definite chronology for those 
early times. That no dependence can be placed in these 
chronologies is shown from the discrepancies between the 
Septuagint and the Hebrew texts.* The Septuagint dates 
the Flood eight hundred years farther back than the common 
Bible. " A margin of variation amounting to eight centu- 
ries between two versions of the same document, is a varia- 
tion so enormous that it seems to cast complete doubt on the 
whole system of interpretation on which such computations 
of time are based." f 

The Deluge. — Allowing the date of the Deluge to have 
been 3149 b. c. instead of 2349 b. c, still there is not sufficient 
time to repopulate the earth, and form those mighty empires 
recorded in ancient history. The Duke of Argyle has very 
justly remarked that, " The founding of a monarchy is not 
the beginning of a race. The people among whom such mon- 
archies arose must have grown and gathered during many 
generations." The peopling of Egypt is not the only diffi- 
culty. " The existence, in the days of Abraham, of such an or- 
ganized government as that of Chedorlaomer shows that two 

to drop the name of unimportant persons. An instance of this kind is 
given in the genealogy of David. From the birth of Obed to the birth of 
his grandson David (common chronology) is a period of two hundred 
and twenty-three years. Evidently one or more members have been 
dropped. If Adam was a prototype it was not necessary to trace the 
line any farther back. The forming him of the dust of the ground 
would give his relationship to the rest of mankind. He was chosen, 
endowed for the purpose of elevating the race — of becoming the head 
of a new type of humanity. 

* The Septuagint version is a translation of the Hebrew Bible into 
Greek, made about three hundred years b. c. The oldest existing MS. 
of the Old Testament in Hebrew dates back no farther than about the 
tenth century after the Christian era. — Chips, vol. i. p. 11. 

f " Primeval Man/' p. 86. 



THE BIBLE A^D SCIENCE. 14-9 

thousand years b. c. there flourished in Elam, beyond Meso- 
potamia, a nation which even now would be ranked among 
'the Great Powers.' " * Then the characteristic features of 
the Negro, one of the most strongly marked among the varie- 
ties of man, were as greatly marked 2000 b. c. as at present. 

These statements lead to the conclusion that the Flood 
was not universal. Most nations have a tradition of a flood, 
but "the monuments of the two most ancient civilizations of 
which we have any knowledge— the Egyptian and Chinese- 
contain no account of, or allusion to, Noah's Deluge." f 
Many of these traditions doubtless refer to some local flood. 
The passages of Scripture seem to teach the universality of 
the Deluge, but the same expressions which convey the idea 
of universality, are sometimes used in a limited sense, and 
refer only to the Holy Land, and to bordering regions. The 
question is one of doubt whether or not the sacred historian 
means the Noachian Deluge to have been universal, or only 
a local cataclysm. 

Monarchies. — The Scriptures do not state that Nimrod 
was the first monarch, but "the beginning of his kingdom 
was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh." JSor is the 
statement made that he founded these cities. He was a 
mighty hunter, and these cities were the beginning of his 
kingdom. 

The Dispersion. — The building of the tower of Babel is 
no myth, but a veritable reality. A portion of the mighty 
fabric still stands, a mountain of ruins, attesting to the vast 
amount of work it required in its construction. The story is 
told in few words, and those words cover centuries. The 
people engaged in its construction spoke one language, but 
when this language was confounded the empire was rent 
asunder. The narrative seems to teach the use of but one 
language on the whole face of the earth. Dr. F. H. Hedge, 
in his sermon on "the Great Dispersion," says, "Moreover, 

* " Primeval Man," p. 87. 

f " Primeval World of Hebrew Tradition," p. 195. 



150 ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 

the phrase ' the whole earth/ as commonly used in the Bible, 
is not to be taken in an absolute or scientific sense. It is not 
intended to include the entire globe, or even the greater 
part thereof, but is loosely employed to designate the whole 
of that particular portion which the writer or speaker has in 
his mind at the time. In the present case it denotes the 
country bordering on the Tigris and the Euphrates."* If 
the views of this eminent theologian be correct, then, by the 
same principle of interpretation the unity of language 
spoken of, is limited to the country bordering on the 
Tigris and the Euphrates. 

There is no necessity of a supernatural aid for the origina- 
tion of language. Under the view already advanced, when 
the animals were brought to Adam, he readily gave them 
names, for he had received language from his predecessors, 
and now, being an especially chosen person, his endowments 
would lead him to a more vigorous application of its use. 

It is not incredible that God could have fashioned the 
world and peopled it with myriads of beings in a period of 
six days of twenty-four hours each. It is not incredible that 
a cataclysm could destroy every living creature, save an ap- 
pointed few, and cover the remotest boundaries of the earth. 
It is possible for God to do anything save that which is 
inconsistent with his character. What is possible for God to 
do, and what He does, are two very different things. What 
He has done can only be told from the evidences which He 
has left. What He might have done is only speculation. 
Man can only judge from the facts presented to him. He 
observes the course of nature, and from these observations 
his conclusions are drawn. 

The world of nature and the spirit of revelation, when 
properly understood, are seen to be in harmony. Man is not 
to close his eyes and refuse to be guided by science, and 
with blind credulity accept the tales and prejudices of his 
grandfathers. 

* "Primeval World of Hebrew Tradition," p. 222. 



THE BIBLE AND SCIENCE. 151 



Note.— Dean Stanley, an eminent divine of the Church of England 
in his discourse at the funeral of Sir Charles Lyell, takes unusual' 
grounds for a theologist. He is reported as saying that there were and 
are two modes of reconciling the letter of Scripture with geoWy but 
each has totally and deservedly failed. One of these attempts to wrest 
the words of the Bible from their real meaning, and force them to 
speak the language of science ; the other attempts to falsify science to 
meet the supposed requirements of the Bible. But there is another 
reconciliation of a higher kind, or rather an acknowledgment of the 
affinity and identity which exist between the spirit of science and the 
spirit of the Bible. First, there is a likeness of the general spirit of 
the Bible truths ; and, secondly, there is a likeness in the methods 
The frame of this earth was gradually brought into its present condi- 
tion by the slow and silent action of the same causes which we see now 
operating through a long succession of ages beyond the memory and 
imaginatmn of man. We do not expect this doctrine to agree with the 
letter of the Bible. The early biblical records could not be literal 
prosaic, matter-of-fact descriptions of the beginning of the world It 
is now clear that the first and second chapters of Genesis contain' two 
narratives of the Creation side by side, differing from each other in 
almost every particular of time and place and order. It is now known 
that the vast epochs demanded by scientific observation are incompati 
ble both with the six thousand years of the Mosaic chronology and the 
six days of the Mosaic Creation. The discoveries of geology are found 
to fill up the old religious truths with a new life, and to derive from 
them in turn a hallowing glory. 



GLOSSAET 



OP 



SCIENTIFIC AND DIFFICULT TERMS USED IN THIS VOLUME. 



Adjunctive, having the quality of join- 
ing. 

Alluvial, pertaining to the deposits of 
sand, clay, or gravel, made by river 
action. 

Amalgamate, to mix or blend different 
things or races. 

Antero'-posterior, in a direction from 
behind forward. 

Aphelion, that point of a planet's or 
comet's orbit which is most distant 
from the sun. 

Archseo-geologist, one versed in pre- 
historic remains, or familiar with 
both archaeology and geology. 

Archives, public records and papers 
preserved as evidence of fact. 

Aryan, a term applied to all the na- 
tions who speak languages derived 
mainly from the Sanskrit, or an- 
cient Hindoo. 

Atomic, a system of philosophy which 
accounted for the origin and forma- 
tion of all things by assuming that 
atoms are enclowed with gravity 
and motion. 

Auditory, having the power of hearing. 

Baton, a staff used as an emblem of 
authority. 

Brachycephalic, a skull whose trans- 
verse diameter exceeds the antero- 
posterior diameter. 

Breccia, a rock made up of angular 
fragments cemented together. 

Bronze, an alloy of copper, with from 
ten to thirty per cent, of tin, to 
which other metals are sometimes 
added. 

7* 



Calcareous, consisting of, or containing, 
carbonate of lime. 

Calcined, reduced to a powder, or fria- 
ble state, by the action of heat. 

Carbonate, a salt formed by the union 
of carbonic acid with a base. 

Carnivora, an order of animals which 
subsist on flesh. 

Carpal, that portion of the skeleton 
pertaining to the wrist. 

Cataclysm, a deluge. 

Celt, one of an ancient race of people 
who formerly inhabited a great part 
of Central and Western Europe ; 
an implement made of stone or 
metal, found in the ancient tumuli 
of Europe. 

Cereal, edible grain. 

Champlain Epoch, a name derived from 
the beds on the borders of Lake 
Champlain. The beds are subse- 
quent in origin to the glacial 
epoch. 

Chert, an impure variety of flint. 

Clavicle, the collar-bone. 

Conglomerate, rock made of pebbles 
cemented together. 

Coronoid, the process of the ulna and 
lower jaw. 

Cosmogony, the science of the origin of 
the world or universe. 

Cranium, the skull. 

Crannoges, small islets in the lakes of 
Ireland and Scotland, used by the 
ancients as places of habitation. 

Crucible, a vessel capable of enduring 
great heat, and used for melting 
ores, metals, etc. 

Cyclical, pertaining to a periodical space 



154 



GLOSSARY. 



of time marked by the recurrence 
of something peculiar. 

Data (pi. of datum), a ground of infer- 
ence or deduction. 

Debris (da-bree), fragments detached 
from rocks, and piled up in masses. 

Demi-relief, the projection of one half 
the figure beyond the plane from 
which it rises. 

Dendrites, a stone on which are tree-like 
markings. 

Devonian, the geological age between 
the Silurian and Carboniferous. 

Diluvium, the time when the glacial 
beds were deposited. 

Diorite, a tough rock, in color whitish, 
speckled with black, or greenish 
black. 

Dolichocephalic, a skull whose diameter 
from the frontal to the occipital 
bone exceeds the transverse dia- 
meter. 

Dorsal, the name given to the second 
division of the vertebrae. 

Drift, a collection of loose earth and 
bowlders, distributed during the 
glacial epoch over large portions of 
the earth's surface. 

Druidical, pertaining to the religious 
ceremonies of the ancient Celtic 
nations in France, Britain, and 
Germany. 

Dynasty, a succession of kings of the 
same line or family. 

Eccentricity, the distance of the centre 
of the orbit of a heavenly body 
from the centre of the body round 
which it revolves. 

Edible, eatable. 

Elliptical, having an oval or oblong 
figure. 

Eocene, the oldest of the three epochs 
of the tertiary. 

Epoch, any period of time marked by 
some particular cause or event. 

Esplanade, a clear space, or grass plat. 

Fauna, the animals of any given area 

or epoch. 
Flora, the complete system of vegetable 

species native in a given locality, 

or period. 
Fluor-spar, a mineral of beautiful 

colors, composed by fluorine and 

calcium. 
Fluvio-marine, the deposits formed by 

the joint action of a river and the 

sea. 



Foramen, a little opening. 

Fossa, a depression in a bone. 

Fossil, the form of a plant or animal in 

the strata composing the surface of 

the earth. 

Genus (pi. genera), an assemblage of 
species possessing certain charac- 
ters in common, by which they are 
distinguished from all others. 

Geode, an irregular shaped stone, con- 
taining a small cavity. 

Gepgnostic, pertaining to a knowledge 
of the structure of the earth. 

Glabella, the middle or frontal protu- 
berance of the superciliary arch. 

Glaciation, the process of becoming 
covered with glaciers. 

Glacier, an immense mass of ice, or 
snow and ice, formed in the region 
of perpetual snow, and moving 
slowly down mountain slopes or 
valleys. 

Gneiss, a crystalline rock, consisting of 
quartz, feldspar, and mica. 

Herbivora, that order of animals which 

subsists upon herbs or vegetables. 
Homologous, having the same typical 

structure. 
Humerus, the bone of the arm nearest 

the shoulder. 
Hybrid, that which is produced from 

the mixture of two species. 

I Ilium, the upper part of the hip bone. 

Jade, a hard and compact stone, of a 
dark green color, and capable of a 
fine polish. 

Lambdoidal, the suture which connects 
the occipital with the parietal bones. 

Leptinite, a fine-grained granitic rock. 

Loam, a soil composed of siliceous saod, 
clay, carbonate of lime, oxide of 
iron, magnesia, and various salts, 
and also decayed vegetable and 
animal matter. 

Loess, a term usually applied to a ter- 
tiary deposit on the banks of the 
Rhine. 

Lumbar, the vertebrae near the loins. 

Mammalia, that class of animals char- 
acterized by the female suckling 
its young. 

Marl, a mixed earthy substance, con- 
sisting of carbonate of lime, clay, 
and siliceous sand. 



GLOSSARY. 



155 



Mastoid, a process situated at the pos- 
terior part of the temporal bone. 

Matrix, a mould ; the cavity in which a 
thing is held. 

Maxillary, the upper jaw bone. 

Metacarpal, the part of the hand be- 
tween the wrist and the fingers. 

Metallurgy, the art of working metals. 

Metatarsal, the middle part of the 
foot. 

Miocene, the middle or second epoch of 
the Tertiary. 

Molar, a grinding tooth. 

Mold, or mould, a prepared cavity used 
in casting ; to form or shape ; fine 
soft earth. 

Mollusca, an order of invertebrate ani- 
mals having a soft, fleshy body, 
which is inarticulate, and not radi- 
ate internally. 

Moraine, a line of blocks and gravel ex- 
tending along the sides of sepa- 
rate glaciers, and along the middle 
part of glaciers formed by the union 
of one or more separate ones. 

Nebulous, having a faint, misty appear- 
ance ; applied to uncondensed gase- 
ous matter. 

Neolithic, new stone age ; a term ap- 
plied to the more modern age of 
stone. 

Nummulitic, composed of, or contain- 
ing a fossil of a flattened form, re- 
sembling a small coin, and common 
in the early tertiary period. 

Obsidian, a kind of glass produced by 
volcanoes. 

Occipital, pertaining to the back part 
of the head. 

Ochreous, consisting of fine clay, con- 
taining iron. 

Olecranon, the large process at the ex- 
tremity of the larger bone of the 
fore-arm. 

Onusprobaudi, the burden of proof. 

Orbit, the cavity in which the eye is 
located ; the path described by a 
heavenly body in its periodical re- 
volution. 

Osar, a low ridge of stone or gravel 
formed by glaciers. 

Oscillation, the act of moving backward 
and forward. 

Osseous, composed of bone. 

Osteologist, one versed in the nature, 
arrangement, and uses of the 
bones. 

Oxide, a compound of oxygen and a 



base destitute of acid and saltish 
properties. 

Pachyderm, a non-ruminant animal, 
characterized by the thickness of 
its skin. 

Palaeolithic, the ancient stone age ; a 
term applied to the earliest traces 
of man when he was cotemporary 
with many extinct mammalia. 

Palseontological, belonging to the sci- 
ence of the ancient life of the earth 

Parallelogram, a figure having four, 
sides, the opposite sides of which 
are parallel, and consequently 
equal. 

Parietal, pertaining to the bones which 
form the sides and upper part of 
the skull. 

Pathological, pertaining to the knowl- 
edge of disease. 

Pelvic, pertaining to the open, bony 
structure at the lower extremity of 
the body. 

Perihelion, that point in the orbit of a 
planet, or comet, in which it is 
nearest to the sun. 

Perimeter, the outer boundary of a 
body. 

Phalanges, the small bones of the fin- 
gers and toes. 

Philologist, one versed in the laws of 
human speech. 

Pliocene, a term applied to the most 
recent tertiary deposits. 

Post-Tertiary, the second period of the 
age of mammals. 

Prototype, a model after which any- 
thing is to be copied. 

Quadrangular, having four angles, and 

consequently four sides. 
Quadrumana, an order of animals 

whose fore feet correspond to the 

hands of man. 
Quartz, a stone of great hardness, with 

a glassy lustre, and varying in 

color from white, or colorless, to 

black. 
Quartzite, granular quartz. 
Quaternary, same as Post-Tertiary. 

Radius, the smaller and exterior bone 

of the fore-arm. 
Reliquiae, remains of the dead. 
Rhematic, that period when men first 

began to coin expressions for the 

most necessary ideas. 
Rodent, an animal that gnaws. 
Ruminant, an animal that chews the 

cud. 



150 



GLOSSARY. 



Sagittalj the suture which connects the 
parietal bones of the skull. 

Savant (sa'-v5ng'), a person eminent 
for acquirements. 

Scapula, the shoulder-blade. 

Schist, a rock having a slaty structure. 

Scientist, a person noted for his pro- 
found knowledge. 

Sediment, the matter which subsides 
to the bottom. 

Semitic, pertaining to one of the fami- 
lies of nations, or languages, and 
so named from its members being 
ranked as the descendants of Shem. 

Serpentine, a soft, massive stone, in 
color dark to light green. 

Siliceous, containing silica, or flinty 
matter. 

Simian, a name given to the various 
tribes of monkeys. 

Squamous, the anterior and upper part 
of the temporal bone, scale-like in 
form. 

Stalagmite, a deposit of earthy matter, 
made by calcareous water drop- 
ping on the floors of caverns. 

Stratified, formed or deposited in layers. 

Stratum (pi. strata), a bed or layer. 

Subsidence, the act of sinking or gradu- 
ally descending. 

Superciliary, the bony superior arch 
above the eye-brow. 



Suture, the seam which unites the 
bones of the skull. 

Symphysis, a connection of bones with- 
out a movable joint. 

Talus, a sloping heap of fragments of 
rocks lying at the foot of a hill. 

Tarsal, relating to the ankle. 

Temporal, pertaining to that portion of 
the head located to the front and a 
little above the ear. 

Terra-cotta, a kind of pottery made 
from fine clay, hardened by heat. 

Tertiary, the first period of the age of 
mammals. 

Thoracic, pertaining to the breast or 
chest. 

Troglodyte, an inhabitant of a cave. 

Truncated, cut off. 

Tufaceous, consisting of, or resembling, 
tuff. 

Tuff, a sand rock formed by aggluti- 
nated volcanic rock. 

Turanian, that order of languages 
known as monosyllabic. 

Ulna, the larger of the two bones of the 
fore-arm. 

Veda, the ancient sacred literature of 

the Hindoos. 
Vertebra, a joint of the back bone. 



INDEX. 



Agassiz, 126. 
Agriculture, 106, 110. 
Amalgamation, 140. 
Amiel, Dr., 20. 
Arcliiac, Vic. d', 13. 
Arts, 77, 91, 104, 109. 
Aymard, Dr., 19. 

Baldwin, A. W., 115. 

Baldwin, J. D., 120. 

Bara, 144. 

Belgian Caverns, 44, 86. 

Berosus, 128. 

Blackmore, Dr., 23. 

Bligb, Lieut., 139, 140. 

Bonnemaison, 20. 

Boucher de Perthes, 12, 18, 19, 38. 

Boue, Aime, 11, 16, 41. 

Bourgeois, Abbe, 22, 61, 62. 

Brown, James, 22. 

Buchner, Dr., 50, 52, 55, 56, 60, 75, 121, 124. 

Buckl and. Dr., 16. 

Burdett-Coutts, Miss, 22. 

Burial, 91, 106, 110. 

Busk, 19, 50, 55. 

Cain, Case of, 146. 
Cannibalism, 90. 
Carpenter, 19. 
Cartailhac, 74. 
Casiano de Prado, 20, 38. 
Cave of Aiirignac, 20, 72-74. 

44 " Brixham, 39. 

" " Chokier, 17, 45. 

" 44 Feldhofner, 53. 

" " Furfooz, 88. 

" ' 4 Gourdan, 82. 

' 4 i4 Kirkdale, 16. 

" 4 ' La Madeleine, 80. 

44 " La Naulette, 42. 

44 " Les Eyzies, 80. 

" " Massat, 22. 

44 " Mentone, 23,24. 

14 " Saint Jean d'Alcas, 94. 

*« " Thayngen, 88. 

44 4l Trou de Chaleux, 86, 87. 

" " Trou des Xutons, 86. 

w u Trou R 0Se tte, 86. . 

44 44 Trou du Frontal, 86. 
Cavern of Ariege, 44. 
44 4i Bize, 16. 
44 " Cracow, 88. 



Cavern of Enghihoul, 16, 17. 

" l( Engis, 16, 17. 

44 " Gailenruth, 15 . 

" " Maccagnone, 74. 

44 4i Pondres, 16, 

k4 4i Torquay, 22. 
Caverns of Brazil, 116. 

4% " Liege, 44. 
Cazalis de Fondace, 95. 
Chaldea, 128-130. 
China, 130. 

Christian, Fletcher, 140. 
Christol, 16. 
Christy, 19, 80. 
Chronology, 101, 148. 

4 - Usher's, 11. 
Clothing, 77, 90, 103, 109. 
Codrington, Thos., 23. 
Creation, 144. 
Croll, 31. 
Cromlech, 106. 
Cashing, F. H. 121. 

Dana, J. D., 28. 

Danish Shell-Mounds, 95. 

44 Peat Bogs, 98. 
Darwin, Charles, 137. 
Dawkins, 68. 
Delaunay, Abbe, 62. 
Deluge, 148. 
Denton, W.. 61, 77. 
Desnoyers, 20, 60, 61. 
Desor, 28, 75. 
Dickeson, Dr. 115. 
Dolmen, 106. 
Dowler, Dr. Bennet, 116. 
Dupont, Edward, 23, 86, 87, 92. 
Dwellings, 89, 103, 103. 

Edwards, M. A. Milne, 22. 
Egypt, 124-126. 
Epoch, Eocene, 62. 

44 '■ Fauna of, 58- 

44 " Glaciers in. 62. 

44 Miocene, Fauna of, 59. 
44 44 Flint flake from Auril- 

lac, 62. 
Epoch, Miocene, Flints from Pontlevoy, 

62. 
Epoch, Miocene, Glaciers in, 62. 
Epoch, Miocene, Man in, 62. 
44 Pliocene, 58. 



158 



INDEX. 



Epoch, Pliocene, Man in, GO, 61. 
Epochs, not sharply defined, 14. 
Eschricl<t. Prof., 50. 
Esper, J. F. 15. 

Falconer, Dr., 18, 19. 
Fauna of Reindeer Epoch, 79. 
Figuier, 13, 102. 
Filhol, 22, 94. 

Fishing and Navigation, 110. 
Fontan, M. A., 22. 
Food, 90, 103, 108. 
Forchammer, 95. 
Ft. Shelby, 121. 
iTossil Man of Denise, 19, 74. 
•• of Mcntone, 23, 85. 
" Remains from Florida, 116. 
Fraas, Oscar, 75. 
Frere, John, 15. 
Fuhlrott, Dr., 22, 52. 

Garrigou, Dr., 22, 85, 94 
Geike, 28. 
Gillieron, 102. 
Glacial Epoch, 52. 

Date of, 27. 

Duration of, 28. 

Fauna of, 26. 
** '■ Geological Period of, 27.- 

Godwin-Austen, 19, 39. 

Gosse, 38. 

Gunning, W. D., 117, 

Half-castes, 147. 

Hall, Dr., 28. 

Hauzeur, 88. 

Herodotus, 101, 124. 

History, Outline of, 14. 

Horner, 126. 

Human bones from Colmar, 23, 42 

kV *« from Savonia, 23, 60. 

Huxley, Prof., 46, 50, 52, 54-57. 
Hybridity, law of, 141. 

Implements, 104, 109. 

" from Toronto, 115. 

kt superstitious regard for, 15. 

India, Fauna of, in Miocene, 63. 
Issel, M. A., 60, 90. 

Jaw from Maestricht, 16, 40. 

k ' " Moulin-Quignon, 19, 38, 67. 

" " La Naulette, 23, 42, 67. 
Joly, 18, 

Keller, Dr., 21, 96, 100, 112. 
Kemp, 15. 
Kent's Hole, 19, 39. 
Kutorga, Dr., 56. 

Land of Nod, 146. 
Language, 78, 

Change of , 134. 
" Divisions of, 132. 

11 Number of, 135. 

" Origin of, 134. 

Written, 135. 
Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland, 21, 90-101. 
Lartet. Edward, 12, 21, 72, 73, 80. 



Las Casas, 131. 

Lastic, M. de, 81. 

Lee, J. E. 21. 

Lepsius, 126. 

Litze, 130. 

Lubbock, Sir John, 12, 14, 28, 30, 50, 59, 

86, 92, 106. 
Lund, Di\, 116. 
Lyell, Sir Charles, 11, 12, 17, 21, 27, 29, 50, 

53. 

MacEnery, Rev. J., 19. 

Mahndei before the Academy of Paris, 15. 

Man, Contentions, 64. 

'« Description of, 77, 92. 

44 Development of, 63, 76, 89. 

11 Dispersion of, 149. 

" During Glaciers, 65. 

'' Inventive, 65, 76. 

" Mode of living, 65, 66. 

" Origin of, 63, 145. 

" Type, 64, 66, 89, 103, 108. 
Manetho. 124. 

Marks on fossil bones, 18, 62. 
Mariette, 125. 
Matson, James, 61. 
Max Muller, Prof., 133, 138. 
Menhirs, 106. 
Mexico, 130. 
Miller, Hugh,145. 
Morlot, 101. 

Mount-Builders, 117-122. 
Mounds, Antiquity of, 120. 
Extent of, 117. 
Sacrificial, 118. 
Sepulchral, 119. 
Symbolical, 119. 
Temple, 119. 
Murchison, Sir Roderick I., 18, 136. 

Neolithic, 14. 

Osars, hearth and wood coal beneath, 6Q. 
Owen, Prof., 91. 

Pelvic bone from Natchez, 115. 

Piers Ploughman's Creed, 135. 

Piette, 82. 

Pliocene beds at St. Prest, 23, 60, ol 

Pouchet, Georges, 136. 

Pourtalis, Count, 116. 

Pre-historic Archaeology, Divisions of, 12, 

13. 
Prichard, Dr., 140. 

Quatrefages, 61. 

Rames, 22. 

Rawlinson, 129. 

Reindeer Station on tbe Schusse, 20, 75. 

Religious Belief , ill. 

Renouvier, 13. 

Rigollot, Dr., 35. 

Riviere, 23, 24. 

Robenhausen, 98, 99. 

Rock-Shelters of Bruuiquel. 81. 

Rollin, 123. 

Schaaffhausen, Prof., 55, 56. 
Schleicher, 136. 



INDEX. 



159 



Schlienian, Dr., 127. 

Schmerling, Dr., 11, 16, 17, 44-46, 50. 

Scott, P. A., 115. 

Septuagint, 148. 

Shell-Heaps of America, 117. 

Skeleton from Lahr, 16, 41. 

" •• New Orleans, 116. 

" Plau, 56. 
Skuil, Er.gis, 45-51, 67. 

' ; Neanderthal. 2*2, 51-50, 66. 
4k '* Race Type, 56. 

" from Altaville, 61. 
" " Cochrane's Cave, 56. 

M t; Comstock Lode, 115. 

" '* Constatt, 15. 

4; " Osage Mission, 114. 

" "'' Rhine, 56. 

4W of Arno, 57. 
Skulls from Borrely, 57. 
" Minsk, 56. 
Moen, 56. 
Somme, Valley of, 18, 84. 

'• " Implements from. 35-37. 

Sons of God, 146. 
Spring, Dr., 46. 

Stanley, Dean, on the Mosaic Record, 151. 
Steenstrup, Prof. 95, 96. 
Stevens, Alfred, 23, 

Stone Implements from Bournemouth, 23. 
"' " from Colorado and 

Wyoming, 62, 114. 
Stone Implements from Foreland Cliff, 23, 

33. 
Stone Implements from Gosport, 22, 33. 

11 " Grinell Leads, 115. 

" " " London, 15. 

" " " Madrid, 20, 38. 

w tt " Seine, 38. 



Stone Implements near Hoxne, 15. 
" '• near Hoxne, numbei 

105. 

Tardy, 62. 

Taylor, Bavard, 124. 
Tertiary beds at St. Prest, 22. 
Climate of, 58. 

" Fauna of, in America, 59. 

" Geography of, 58. 
Tournal, 16. 
Troy, 127, 128. 
Trovon, 13, 100. 
Traffic, 91. 
Tjior, 12. 
Tyson, Capt., 139. 

Unity of Race, 136-142, 147. 
" " " Objections to, 136 > 

Vivian, 19. 

Vogt, Carl, 50, 51, 57, 61. 

Wallace, A. R.,59, 136. 
War, 105. 
Weirley, Dr., 114. 
Welcker, 137. 
Westropp, 13. 
Whitney, Prof., 61. 
Wilson, Dr. Daniel, 115. 
Wokey Hole, 68. 

Workshops of Laugerie-Basse, SO, 91. 
" " Laugerie-Haute, 80, 91, 

Worsaae, 95. 

Zawisza, Count, 88. 
Zumarraga, Bishop, 131. 



